Overview

• Two paired samples: Within-Subject Designs

-Hypothesis test
-Confidence Interval
-Effect Size

• Two independent samples: Between-Subject Designs

-Hypothesis test
-Confidence interval
-Effect Size
 Comparing Two Populations
Until this point, all the inferential statistics we have considered
involve using one sample as the basis for drawing conclusion
about one population.

Although these single sample techniques are used occasionally in

real research, most research studies aim to compare of two (or
more) sets of data in order to make inferences about the
differences between two (or more) populations.

What do we do when our research question concerns a mean

difference between two sets of data?
 Two kinds of studies

There are two general research strategies that can be used to

obtain the two sets of data to be compared:
1. The two sets of data could come from two independent
populations (e.g. women and men, or students from
section A and from section B) <- between-subjects design

2. The two sets of data could come from related

populations (e.g. “before treatment” and “after
treatment”) <- within-subjects design
 Part I

• Two paired samples: Within-Subject Designs

-Hypothesis test
-Confidence Interval
-Effect Size
 Paired T-Test for Within-Subjects Designs

Our hypotheses:
Ho: D = 0
HA: D  0

To test the null hypothesis, we’ll again compute a t

statistic and look it up in the t table.

Paired Samples t
s
t = D - D sD =
sD n
 Steps for Calculating a Test Statistic

Paired Samples T
1. Calculate difference scores
2. Calculate D
3. Calculate sd
4. Calculate T and d.f.
5. Use Table E.6
Confidence Intervals for Paired Samples

General formula
X  t (SE)

Paired Samples t
D  t (sD)
 Effect Size for Dependent Samples
One Sample d

ˆ X  H0
d
s

Paired Samples d

ˆ D
d
sD
 Exercise
In Everitt’s study (1994), 17 girls being treated for
anorexia were weighed before and after treatment.
Difference scores were calculated for each participant.

Change in Weight
n = 17
D = 7.26
sD = 7.16

Test the null hypothesis that there was no change in weight.

Compute a 95% confidence interval for the mean difference.
Calculate the effect size
Change in Weight
Exercise
n = 17
D = 7.26
sD = 7.16

7.16
T-test SE   1.74
17

7.26  0
t (16)   4.17
1.74

p  .01
Change in Weight
Exercise
n = 17
D = 7.26
sD = 7.16

Confidence tcrit  2.12

Interval

CI  7.26  2.12(1.74)

(3.57,10.95)
Change in Weight
Exercise
n = 17
D = 7.26
sD = 7.16

Effect Size
7.26
d
7.16

d  1.01
 Part II

• Two independent samples: Between-Subject Designs

-Hypothesis test
-Confidence Interval
-Effect Size
 T-Test for Independent Samples
The goal of a between-subjects research study is to evaluate
the mean difference between two populations (or between
two treatment conditions).

We can’t compute difference scores, so …

Ho: 1 = 2

HA: 1  2
 T-Test for Independent Samples

We can re-write these hypotheses as follows:

Ho: 1 - 2 = 0
HA: 1 - 2  0

To test the null hypothesis, we’ll again compute a t

statistic and look it up in the t table.
 T-Test for Independent Samples

General t formula
t = sample statistic - hypothesized population parameter
estimated standard error

One Sample t
X  H0
ttest 
sX

Independent samples t
( X 1  X 2 )  ( 1   2 ) s X1  X 2  ?
t
s X1  X 2
T-Test for Independent Samples

Standard Error for a Difference in Means

s X1  X 2

The single-sample standard error ( sx ) measures how

much error expected between X and .

The independent-samples standard error (sx1-x2)

measures how much error is expected when you are
using a sample mean difference (X1 – X2) to represent a
population mean difference.
 T-Test for Independent Samples

Standard Error for a Difference in Means

s12 s22
s X1  X 2  
n1 n2

Each of the two sample means represents its own population mean, but
in each case there is some error.
The amount of error associated with each sample mean can be measured
by computing the standard errors.
To calculate the total amount of error involved in using two sample
means to approximate two population means, we will find the error from
each sample separately and then add the two errors together.
 T-Test for Independent Samples

Standard Error for a Difference in Means

s12 s22
s X1  X 2  
n1 n2
But…
This formula only works when n1 = n2. When the two
samples are different sizes, this formula is biased.
This comes from the fact that the formula above treats the
two sample variances equally. But we know that the
statistics obtained from large samples are better estimates,
so we need to give larger sample more weight in our
estimated standard error.
 T-Test for Independent Samples

Standard Error for a Difference in Means

s 2p s 2p
s X1  X 2  
n1 n2
We are going to change the formula slightly so that we use
the pooled sample variance instead of the individual sample
variances.

This pooled variance is going to be a weighted estimate of

the variance derived from the two samples.
2 SS1  SS2
s 
p
df1  df 2
 Steps for Calculating a Test Statistic

One-Sample T
1. Calculate sample mean
2. Calculate standard error
3. Calculate T and d.f.
4. Use Table D
 Steps for Calculating a Test Statistic

Independent Samples T
1. Calculate X1-X2
SS1  SS2
s2p 
2 2
2. Calculate pooled variance df1  df 2
s p s p

n1 n2 3. Calculate standard error
(X1  X 2 )  (1  2 )
t
4. Calculate T and d.f. sx1  x2
d.f. = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1)
5. Use Table E.6
 Illustration
A developmental psychologist would like to examine the
difference in verbal skills for 8-year-old boys versus 8-
year-old girls. A sample of 10 boys and 10 girls is
obtained, and each child is given a standardized verbal
abilities test. The data for this experiment are as follows:

Girls Boys

n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 37 X 2 = 31
SS1 = 150 SS2 = 210
 Girls Boys
Illustration
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 37 X 2 = 31
SS1 = 150 SS2 = 210

STEP 1: get mean difference

X1  X 2  6
 Girls Boys
Illustration
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 37 X 2 = 31
SS1 = 150 SS2 = 210

STEP 2: Compute Pooled Variance

SS1  SS2
2 150  210 360
s  p    20
df1  df 2 (10  1)  (10 1) 18
 Girls Boys
Illustration
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 37 X 2 = 31
SS1 = 150 SS2 = 210

STEP 3: Compute Standard Error

2 2
sp sp20 20
SE      4 2
n1 n2 10 10
 Girls Boys
Illustration
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 37 X 2 = 31
SS1 = 150 SS2 = 210

STEP 4: Compute T statistic and df

(X1  X 2 )  (1  2 ) (37  31)  0

t  3
sx1  x2 2

d.f. = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1) = (10-1) + (10-1) = 18

 Girls Boys
Illustration
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 37 X 2 = 31
SS1 = 150 SS2 = 210

STEP 5: Use table E.6

T = 3 with 18 degrees of freedom

For alpha = .01, critical value of t is 2.878

Our T is more extreme, so we reject the null
There is a significant difference between boys and girls
 T-Test for Independent Samples
Sample Hypothesized Sample Estimated t-statistic
Data Population Variance Standard
Parameter Error

Single
SS s2 X

2
sample X s  t
df sx
t-statistic n

Independent SS  SS2
1  2
2 2
X1  X 2
2
s  1 sp sp
samples p
df1  df 2 
t-statistic n1 n2

(X1  X 2 )  (1  2 )
t
sx1  x2
Confidence Intervals for Independent Samples

General formula
X  t (SE)

One Sample t
X  t (sx)

Independent Sample t
(X1-X2)  t (sx1-x2)
 Effect Size for Independent Samples
One Sample d

ˆ X  H0
d
s

Independent Samples d

ˆ X1  X 2
d
sp
 Exercise
Subjects are asked to memorize 40 noun pairs. Ten subjects
are given a heuristic to help them memorize the list, the
remaining ten subjects serve as the control and are given no
help. The ten experimental subjects have a X-bar = 21 and a
SS = 100. The ten control subjects have a X-bar = 19 and a SS
= 120.

Test the hypothesis that the experimental group differs from

the control group.
Give a 95% confidence interval for the difference between
groups
Give the effect size
Experimental Control
Exercise
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 21 X 2 = 19
SS1 = 100 SS2 = 120

T-test X1  X 2  2

SS1  SS 2 100  120 220

s 
2
p    12.2
df1  df 2 (10  1)  (10  1) 18

s 2p s 2p 12.2 12.2
SE      2.44  1.56
n1 n2 10 10
Experimental Control
Exercise
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 21 X 2 = 19
SS1 = 100 SS2 = 120

T-test
( X 1  X 2 )  ( 1   2 ) 2  0
t   1.28
s x1 x2 1.56

d.f. = (n1 - 1) + (n2 - 1) = (10-1) + (10-1) = 18

p  .20
Experimental Control
Exercise
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 21 X 2 = 19
SS1 = 100 SS2 = 120

Confidence tcrit  2.101

Interval

CI  2  2.101(1.56)

(1.28,5.28)
Experimental Control
Exercise
n1 = 10 n2 = 10
X1 = 21 X 2 = 19
SS1 = 100 SS2 = 120

Effect Size
X1  X 2
d
sp

2
d
12.2

d  .57
 Summary

Hypothesis Tests 1 Sample

Confidence Intervals 2 Paired Samples
Effect Sizes 2 Independent Samples
Review
 Sample Hypothesized Sample Estimated t-statistic
Data Population Variance Standard
Parameter Error

One sample
SS s2 X

2
X s  t
t-statistic df sx
n

Paired
samples t- SS
s  D
2 s2 D  D
statistic
D D df t
n sD

Independent SS  SS2
1  2
2 2
samples X1  X 2 s  1
2 sp sp
p
df1  df 2 
t-statistic n1 n2

(X1  X 2 )  (1  2 )
t
sx1  x2
 Confidence Intervals

One Sample t
X  t (SE)

Paired Samples t
D  t (sD)

Independent Sample t
(X1-X2)  t (sx1-x2)
 Effect Sizes
One Sample d
ˆ X  H0
d
s

Paired Samples d

ˆ D
d
sD

Independent Samples d
ˆ X1  X 2
d
sp