ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

To this point we have spent quite some time discussing what people from different
cultures should do and how they should act to communicate with one another.
Because those actions have consequences, we suggest to include an ethical
dimension. Put in slightly different terms, the messages you send to other peo­ple
have the potential to change them in both subtle and easily discernible ways.
More specifically, these changes have ethical overtones.

Ethics focuses on degrees of rightness and wrongness, virtue and vice, and
obligations in human behavior. Ethics is closely related to morality, or morals, the
difference being that ethics leans towards decisions based upon individual
character, and the more subjective understanding of right and wrong by
individuals – whereas morals emphasizes the widely-shared communal or
societal norms about right and wrong. However, the link between the two is so
close that frequently the two terms are used as synonyms.

Because ethical judgments are a pre­cursor to action, ethical decisions often have
impacts on the thoughts and behaviors of other people. The ramifications of
these "impacts" are so profound that ethics has been a topic of concern for
thousands of years. Religious thinkers, philosophers, and ordinary people have
been struggling to answer the difficult and complex questions we face when
deciding how to treat other people
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS - continued
Ethics, in other words, can be seen as a reflection of your convictions, which are
rooted in your culture. As a set of principles, it also provides guidelines that
influence everything in your life, including the manner in which you communicate
with other people. Ethics, therefore, helps you determine what you ought to do,
how you ought to act, and how you should interact with people.

What complicates the decision-making process is that many ethical decisions are
so automatic that you are not even aware of them. In addition, a person's set of
ethics seeks to offer them "instructions" on how to make difficult moral decisions
in both their professional and private lives. These choices are made even more
challenging when ethical practices collide—as they often do in intercultural
interactions. What we are suggesting is that ethical systems are also culturally
diverse and demonstrate differences from culture to culture. This observation
raises the question of whether there is an absolute morality and set of universal
ethical principles. Most likely, the answer is "No." While people hold many of the
same ethical precepts, they advance diverse arguments whether morality is
absolute, or whether it is relative to specific cultures. In this, we will give you a
brief overview of two of the most common perspectives (fundamentalism and
relativ­ism) employed to deal with ethical issues.
FUNDAMENTALISM
The first approach, often associated with various religions, is known as
fundamentalism or moral absolutism. In this view, ethical principles are thought
to be univer­sally applicable, and timeless moral truths are rooted in human
nature, and are indepen­dent of the conventions of particular cultures or societies.
Adherents to this position believe that there are definitive, true moral rules and
codes that apply to all people at all times. These rules constitute objective moral
standards, and they are exceptionless. Thus, the adepts of fundamentalism hold
that there is a universal, timeless and absolute morality that applies to all people
at all times, everywhere, and is independent of the conventions of individual
cultures

RELATIVISM
Unlike the absolutist perspective described above, the second approach follows
from a relativistic mindset. This orientation is often referred to as moral relativism
and has as its core the view that deciding what is right or wrong and good and
bad behavior is not absolute, but instead changeable and relative. More
specifically, this orientation holds that ethical principles are culturally bound,
context dependent, and only applicable to their respective cultures. The
philosophical premise behind this perspective may he summarized succinctly as:
"There is no single true morality. There are many different moral frameworks,
none of which is more correct than the others.”
 RELATIVISM - continued
A more specific view of relativism, and one that applies directly to this
course, is what is known as cultural relativism – the idea that one must
suspend judgment of other people's behavior in order to understand
them in their own cultural terms. This philosophy affirms that ethical
standards vary from culture to culture. For example, the intolerance of
bribery in the United States would be no more or less ethical than the
toleration of bribery in Italy – and countless other examples could be
drawn. A secondary dynamic that follows from cultural relativism is that
ethical standards are subject to change – especially now, as
globalization leads to common values regarding primarily economic and
work-related behavior.
Throughout this course, we will proceed on the assumption that ethics and
morality are culturally relative. We will further advance the notion that
regardless of one's basic view of the world, ethical decisions – and how
they are determined – are part of everyone's daily life. Hence, we will
further focus on some guidelines and behaviors you may adopt as you
attempt to practice ethical behavior when interacting with people of
diverse cultures.
ETHICS IN INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

BE MINDFUL THAT COMMUNICATION PRODUCES A RESPONSE

One of the basic premises of this course is that the messages you produce create a
response from other people. Even when communicating within your own cultural
sphere, it is sometimes difficult to predict what response you may elicit. And in the
intercultural environment, where cultural diversity comes into play, it is much more
difficult to foretell the type of response your messages will produce. For example,
you have learned, as part of your cultural endowment, the appropriate way to
respond to, and thank someone for, a compliment or a gift. Within your culture, you
can gauge with a high degree of accuracy what others expect from you, as well as
how they will respond to your signs of appreciation. But predicting the responses of
people from other cultures is far more difficult. For example, in Arab cultures gift
recipients are expected to be profuse in offering thanks, whereas, in English culture
recipients are expected to offer restrained thanks because too much exuberance is
considered offensive.
The point is that it is difficult to always know how people will react to messages.
Therefore, it is recommended to concentrate on both the other person and your
surroundings. This focus on actions and the results of those actions is called being
mindful. Being mindful during a communication encounter means giving full
attention to the moment and adjust your messages to both the context and the
person. But most importantly, you can be aware of what you are doing to another
person - and that is a matter of ethics.
SHOW RESPECT FOR OTHERS
How would you respond if someone embarrassed you in front of others?
Your feelings would range from anger to emotional hurt. No one likes
being denigrated. Each and every person seeks respect, dignity, and a
feeling of worth, regardless of their culture. From an ethical perspective
this means that during your interactions you display respect for the
dignity and feeling of all people, reflexive attitude and reciprocal regard
for others. In intercultural interactions one must reach beyond his or her
cultural norms and respect the norms of other cultures.

SEARCH FOR COMMONALITIES AMONG PEOPLE AND CULTURES

Throughout this course we will spend considerable time talking about
cultural differences that influence intercultural communication, Yet we
must not overlook the sim­ilarities among people and cultures, because
those similarities can act as an ethical guide. No matter how many
differences there may be, beneath the surface there are even more
similarities. It is important to try to identify the similarities among various
cultures. Stripping away surface differences will uncover a multiplicity of
similarities: people's hopes, aspirations, desire to survive, search for
love, and need for family - to name just a few.
SEARCH FOR COMMONALITIES – Continued
This search for commonalities is an important ethical component because it
enables us to seek out common ground that helps decide how to treat other
people, regardless of their culture. The similarities that unite people, and in a
real sense make everyone part of the global society, may range from the
obvious to the subtle. For example, it is apparent that all people inhabit the
same planet for a rather short period, and all people share the same desire
to be free from external restraint—the craving for freedom is basic.

The world's religious traditions have also recognized the values that bind people
and make for a more just society. For example, they all denounce murder,
stealing, hearing false witness, adultery, and the like. Although the words
are different, the wisdom contained within the words is universal. We will
discuss this more in detail while having religion as a separate topic.

From the above we can recognize that in many significant ways people are very
much alike. It is important that in a multicultural world we begin to observe
these commonalities. People in all cultures should search for and attempt to
expand the values, institutions, and practices they have in common with
people of other cultures.
RESPECT CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
Although we just discussed the need to seek out similarities among people and
cultures, we now ask that you not ignore cultural differences. It is said that “all
people have the right to be equal and the equal right to be different." In short,
while seeking commonalities you need to be aware and respectful of cultural
differences. By developing this awareness, you will begin to develop an
intercultural ethical perspective. Keep in mind a recurring theme in this course:
people are both alike and different. Every culture has a different organization of
industry, a different approach to education, a different role for labor unions, and a
contrasting pattern of family life, unique law enforcement practices, contrasting
forms of political activity, different sex and age roles. Indeed, each culture shows
as many differences as similarities.

In view of the above, a complete and honest intercultural ethical perspective grants
similarities and recognizes differences. By accepting and appreciating both, we
better assess the potential consequences of our communicative acts and
become more tolerant of those of others. Putting it briefly, cultural differences
must first be acknowledged, then understood, and finally appreciated. One
common example is that of food – many of us consume on daily basis dishes
from many different cultures, appreciating the differences in taste.
ACCEPT RESPONSIBILITY FOR YOUR BEHAVIOR

Earlier it was mentioned that we should be aware that communication produces

responses, and that our choice of communicative behaviors can cause both
intended and unin­tended consequences for other people. This notion is
predicated on the belief that we are all given the gift of free will. From a
communication perspective this also recognizes that while each of us is situated
in a particular culture and socialized into certain norms, we are nevertheless able
to reflect on those norms and change them if necessary. This means that our
decisions, actions, and even failures, have consequences - consequences over
which we have some control. This what the Dalai Lama has called "our universal
responsibility." That responsibility means that if we are going to live in this
crowded, interconnected world, we should recognize our individual roles within
that world.

All your decisions, actions, and even your failures to act have consequences for
yourself and countless other people. The central message is that if you are going
to live in this crowded, interconnected world, and if this planet and you, its
"temporary residents," are to survive, you must accept your individual roles within
that world. Remember that people and cultures are inextricably linked.
 STUDYING INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Three important points should by now be clear. First, learning how to

become successful in your future intercultural interactions is a
worthwhile and necessary pursuit. Second, venturing into cultures
different from your own can involve culture shock and other
issues related to acculturation. And third, the study of intercultural
communication requires that you develop a set of ethical
standards.

At the same time, while we strongly hold to the notion that culture is
an instrumental variable in human interaction, there are a number
of potential problems that can be encountered as we make culture
the centerpiece in our study of intercultural communication.
Specifically, we need to offer three precautions that will further
clarify the crucial link between culture and communication. These
qualifications deal with (1) the uniqueness of each individual, (2)
the perils of generalizing and (3) the need for objectivity.
INDIVIDUAL UNIQUENESS
In a very real sense there have never been two people exactly alike. The reason is
simple: our behavior is shaped by a multitude of sources, and culture is just one
of those sources. Put in slightly different terms, we are more than our cultures.
Although all cultures offer people a common frame of reference, people are not
captives of their culture. People are thinking, feeling individuals. Consequently,
the values and behaviors of a particular culture may not be the values and
behaviors of all the individuals within that culture.

Question: are there traits in your culture that you are: a) using, b) rejecting, c)
ignoring? And are there elements in your personality that do not come from your
culture?

Personality consists of the traits that are unique to an individual human being. It is
partly genetic and partly learned. Because much of personality is learned, it is
strongly influenced by culture. Yet, although all learned behavior takes place
within a cultural setting, every person has a unique personality. Therefore, we
must be cautious and prudent when making cultural generalizations. What we
said earlier is worth repeating: Always keep in mind that culture is a powerful
force in the shaping of human behavior, but people are more than their cultures.
GENERALIZING AND STEREOTYPING

When people from other cultures conclude that all Americans wear baseball caps
everywhere they go and eat mostly fast food, they are generalizing. When we
generalize, we are allow­ing a few instances to represent an entire class of events,
people, or experiences. It is easy to fall into the trap of employing generalizations,
since they are easy to arrive at. As we noted, these sorts of cultural
generalizations are popular because they are easy to create — easy, because
they rely on limited samples. In addition, when repeated with enough regularity,
they become a shorthand representing an entire collection of people. As we might
expect, the study of intercultural communication is the perfect arena to misuse
generalizations, since it is tempting to generalize about an entire collectivity of
people when discussing their qualities and "typical" behaviors.

Generalizations are based on a limited amount of data and then applied to a larger
population. In intercultural communication, this means ascribing characteristics to
a larger group of people based on attributes displayed by a smaller group.
Stereotypes differ from generalizations, in that they may usually appeal to the
audience's positive or negative emotions. For example, "all Asian students surely
make good grades" is a stereotype. A generalization would be "Records indicate
that Asian students are likely to make good grades."
STEREOTYPES
Stereotyping is a complex form of categorization, positive or negative, that mentally
organizes your experiences and guides your behavior toward a particular group
of people.
Stereotypes can be:
• Normative - those you might hold without any firsthand or direct experience with
the group in question.
• Personal - you actually have firsthand knowledge of the group, regardless of
how limited that contact might be.
• Widely shared by others, even by the stereotyped persons themselves.
• Varied in intensity – some of them are strongly held while others ate tentative
and loosely held.

Harmful effects of stereotypes

In most instances, stereotypes are the products of limited, lazy, and misguided
perceptions. They are oversimplified, exaggerated, and overgeneralized – in
other words, no matter whether positive or negative, they are inaccurate and in
the end wrong and misguiding.
Question: why, then, do we still indulge in stereotypes?
AVOIDING MIS-GENERALIZATION
While we grant that misuse of generalizing can be a problem when studying intercultural
com­munication, we can take certain precautions to minimize the misleading effects
of generalizing.
First, cultural generalizations must be viewed as approximations, not as absolute
representations. Your personal experiences have taught you that people often do
not follow the prescribed and accepted modes of cultural behavior.
Second, when we make generalizations, they should deal with primary values and
behaviors of a particular culture. It is these core values and learned behaviors that
occur with enough regularity and over a long enough period of time that tend to cor­
rectly identify the members of a particular culture. If we examine the dominant cul­
ture of the United States, we would have little trouble noticing the importance placed
on individualism in everything - from dress to outward behavior. In the same
manner, you could begin to get insight into the role of women in Saudi Arabia by
noticing how few women drive cars or hold public offices. These kinds of behaviors
are recognizable because of their consistency over an extended period, usually
involving generation after generation.
Third, when employing generalizations try to use those that can be supported by a
variety of sources. Insufficient and/or limited samples often produce unwarranted
con­clusions. Finally, conclusions and statements about cultures should be qualified
so that they, do not appear to be absolutes, but only cautious generalizations,
without implying that all the members of a certain culture or a group are exactly
alike.
OBJECTIVITY
Our next consideration when studying intercultural communication involves
the issue of objectivity. The very definition of objectivity ("The state of
being objective, just, unbiased and not influenced by emotions or
personal prejudices") should alert us to the difficulty of trying to com­
municate with other people while suspending personal judgment. It is
difficult to be objective when you perceive the actions of other cultures,
since they are frequently viewed from the perspective of one’s own
culture (remember our earlier talk about ethnocentrism). An American
might believe that the family organization of the Maasai of East Africa is
immoral because a husband may have several wives. As evidenced,
being objective is no simple assignment.

Objectivity also requires that we approach each new situation with an open
mind and avoid being too judgmental. Objectivity promotes learning to
interact with and value distinct groups of peo­ple regardless of their
culture, race, ethnicity, religion, country, or gender.
 CONCLUDING REMARK

By offering these warnings about the study of intercultural communication,

the point has been to alert us to some of the potential problems facing
anyone who takes on a topic as large and complex as intercultural
communication. However, now that we have offered these three
admonitions, we are ready to begin the process of improving our
interactions with people of cultures different from our own.

Assignment 1 – Week 2
Giving illustrative examples, outline briefly any FOUR ethical aspects that
are helpful in intercultural communication.