Notes in GE 5 –

Ethics

Part I THE MORAL

AGENT

Lesson 1 CULTURE IN MORAL

BEHAVIOR

CULTURE: SOME DEFINITIONS

Culture denotes the practices, beliefs and perceptions of a given society. a.
Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of
people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. b. Culture
consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for behavior acquired and transmitted
by symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement of human groups, including their
embodiments in artifacts.
The essential core of culture consists of traditional ideas and especially their
attached values; culture systems may, on the one hand, be considered as products of
action, on the other hand, as conditioning influences upon further action. c. Culture is
the sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered
to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation. d.
Culture is cultivated behavior; the totality of a person’s learned, accumulated experience
which is socially transmitted, or more briefly, behavior through social learning. e. Culture
is symbolic communication.
Some of its symbols include a group’s skills, knowledge, attitudes, values, and
motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately perpetuated in a
society through its institutions.
Culture includes all the things individuals learn while growing up among particular
groups:
- Attitudes - Standards of morality - Rules of etiquette -
Perceptions of reality - Language - Notions about the
proper way to live - Beliefs about how females and males
should interact - Ideas about how the world works, etc. All
of these are called CULTURAL KNOWLEDGE.

CULTURE’S ROLE IN MORAL BEHAVIOR

 A culture is a “way of life” of a group of people, and this so-called “way of life”
actually includes moral values and behaviors, along with knowledge, beliefs, symbols
that they accept, “generally without thinking about them, and that are passed along by
communication and imitation from one generation to the next.”
Many aspects of morality are learned from transmitters of culture: respective
parents, teachers, novels, films, and television. Observing or watching them, people
develop a set idea of what is right and wrong, what is acceptable or not.
Even experientially, it is improbable, if not impossible, to live in a society without
being affected by its culture. It is hard to grow up in a particular culture without being
impacted by how it views morality, or what is ethically right or wrong.
SOCIAL LEARNING is the process by which individuals acquire knowledge from
others in the groups where they belong, as a normal part of childhood.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics ENCULTURATION or SOCIALIZATION is the process by which
infants and children socially learn the culture, including morality, of those around them.

MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION

CONVENTION means those things agreed upon by people, like through their
authorities. It also refers to the usual or customary ways through which things are done
within a group.
To say that moral standards are social convention is to claim that human beings
had just made moral standards up for themselves and might have been different had
they liked.

Basi
s
Morality is something that is handed down to us primarily by education or
socialization, either through parents and elders or through teachers.

Analysis
Just because something is learned at homes or schools does not necessarily
mean that it is a social convention. Mathematical operations, geographical facts and
scientific laws are real truths and not mere conventions.
According to C. S. Lewis, morality belongs to the same class as mathematics for
two reasons. a. Although there are differences between the moral ideas of one time or
country and those of
 another, the differences are not really very
great.
Essentially, we can recognize the same moral law running through them all. b.
We affirm that the morality of one people is better or worse than that of another, which
means that there is a moral standard or rule by which we measure both moralities and
that standard is real.
Progress means positive development or development toward achieving a goal or
reaching a higher standard. Moral progress means not just changing, but changing
for the better. Now, if no set of moral ideas were truer or better than any other, there
would be no sense in preferring civilized morality to savage morality.

THE SOCIAL CONDITIONING THEORY

Morality is nothing but an effect of social conditioning. Moral consciousness, the
feeling that we are obliged to act morally, is nothing but an outcome of social
conditioning (Richard Robinson).

Analysis
There are plenty of situations where a person, although conditioned and
influenced by his/her culture to adopt a particular course, feels the moral obligation to
take an entirely different action.
Social conditioning affects our ethical knowledge. Nevertheless, it is the intellect
which can be molded or socially conditioned, not the sense of moral obligation nor
conscience.

MORAL RELATIVISM
MORAL RELATIVISM is a theory in ethics which holds that ethical judgments
have their origins either in individual or cultural standards. It fundamentally believes that
no act is good or bad objectively, and there is no single objective universal standard
through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.
MORAL SUBJECTIVISM holds that ethical judgments have their origins in
individual standards.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM holds that ethical judgments have their origins in
cultural standards.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
CULTURAL RELATIVISM, the most dominant form of moral relativism, defines
‘moral’ as what is ‘socially approved’ by the majority in a particular culture. It maintains
that an act is ethical in a culture that approves of it, but immoral in one that disapproves
of it.

Base
s
Societies fundamentally disagree about ethical issues. Morality differs in every
society as concepts of right and wrong vary from culture to culture.

Implications
There are no moral truths that hold for all peoples at all times. Every standard is
culture-bound.
Ethics is merely a matter of societal convention. The moral code of our own
society is merely one among many.

ANALYSIS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Lessons
Moral relativism encourages tolerance which is necessary for people of different
cultural origins to co-exist and live peacefully in society.
Moral relativism also teaches us to be open-minded, thereby being more open to
discovering the truth.

Fault
s
Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision-
making in Ethics as it requires unsuspecting compliance and subscription to social
norms.
Cultural relativism is inconsistent in promoting tolerance while teaching that no
culture is morally superior or more progressive than others.
Cultural relativism is practicable only if people do not belong to more than one
institution.
Moral relativism is essentially inconsistent for one cannot support relativism with
a non-relative statement.

Rachels’ Evaluation of Cultural Relativism

Rachels logically analyzed the cultural relativism’s line of thinking. He explains
that the cultural relativists approach is to argue from facts about the differences
between cultural outlooks to a conclusion about the status of morality.
Cultural Differences
Argument
The Greeks believed it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the Callatians
(an Indian tribe) believed it was right to eat the dead.
Therefore, eating the dead is neither objectively right nor objectively
wrong.
It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to culture.

The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas we believe

infanticide is immoral.
Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor objectively wrong.
It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to culture.

General Form of the Cultural Differences Argument:

Different cultures have different moral codes.
Therefore, there is no objective “truth” in morality.

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Notes in GE 5 –
Ethics

Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions vary from
culture to culture.

Counterargument to Cultural Differences Argument:

People in some primitive tribes believe that the earth is flat, whereas
Europeans hold that the Earth is (roughly) spherical.
Therefore, there is no “objective truth” in geography. Belief in the shape of
the earth is only a matter of opinion, and opinions vary from culture to
culture.

The Disagreements Among

Cultures
Cultural relativism capitalizes on the observation that cultures differ dramatically
in their views of right and wrong.
Yet, the difference lies in BELIEF SYSTEMS, not in VALUES. The difference in customs
may be because of some other aspects of social life. It is wrong to conclude that there is
a disagreement about values and morality just because customs differ.

The Case of the

Callatians
 The Callatians’ funerary practice could be understood as a sign of respect.
“Eating the dead is a symbolic act that says: we wish this person’s spirit to dwell within
us.”

The Case of the

Eskimos
The Eskimos are popular for killing perfectly normal infants, especially girls,
because they live in a harsh environment where food is in short supply that “life is hard,
and the margin of safety small.”
Unable to farm, Eskimos must move about in search of food and infants must be
carried. There are limits to the number of infants that a mother can sustain.
Infant girls are more readily disposed of because males are the primary food
providers/hunters and they suffer a high casualty rate.
Nevertheless, adoption is common and killing is only the last resort.

Bad Consequences of Cultural Relativism a. We could no longer say that the

customs of other societies are morally inferior to our own.
Cultural relativism teaches that no culture is morally superior or progressive than
others so that racism, oppression, slavery etc. are morally acceptable. b. We could
decide whether actions are right or wrong just by consulting the standards of our
societ
y.
Cultural relativism endorses traditionalism so that one is not supposed to think for
himself or herself. c. The idea of moral progress is called into doubt.
In cultural relativism, there is no standard by which we judge new ways as better or
progressive.
 Page 4 of 7
Notes in GE 5 – Ethics ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
Because culture has a major impact on morality, people from different cultures appear
to have seemingly, but not essentially, different sets of ethics. This is particularly
apparent in ethics of groups of people from the Eastern or Asian culture as compared to
those from the Western culture.
Western Thought versus Eastern Thought
WESTERN THOUGHT EASTERN THOUGHT Individualist Collectivist Dualistic or
Fragmentary Wholistic Linear view of life and universe based on the philosophy that
everything has a beginning and an end.
Page 5 of 7 Circular/cyclic view of life and universe based on the perception of eternal
Focus on “We” in finding truth and
recurrence. Focus on “I” in finding truth and meaning.
meaning. Religion is independent of philosophy. Religion and philosophy are one.
Action is not necessarily a translation of
Action is the extension of the mind.
the mind. “Me” is given and does not have to be
cognizable.
“Me” is to be discovered from liberation from attachment to material things. Events are
treated as happenings by themselves.
Events are treated as interconnected to/with each other. Focus on searching outside the
self through research and analysis.
Focus on searching inside the self through meditation and right living. The truth needs
The truth is given and does not have to be
to be proved.
proved.
Western Ethics versus Eastern Ethics
WESTERN ETHICS EASTERN ETHICS Focus Finding Truth Protocol and Respect
Basis Rational Thought Religious Teachings Emphasis Logic, Cause and Effect
Respect Towards Family
Athens, Rome, Judaeo-
Roots
Christianity
Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism Approach Rational Holistic, Cultural
Good must triumph over
Conflict and Harmony
Evil
Good and Bad, Light and Dark all exist in equilibrium
Morality in Confucian Thought
Confucianism focuses on the cultivation of virtue and maintenance of morality. Yi is the
upholding of righteousness and the moral disposition to do good. Ren is an obligation of
altruism and humaneness for other individuals. Ren is the character of the self that
 sincerely shows compassion for others.
Li is a system of norms and propriety that determines how a person should properly act
in everyday life. Li is both the restraining and the refinement of the self.
FILIPINO MORAL CHARACTER: STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES
Filipino cultural morality, especially that which concerns social ethics, centers on ideally
having a smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR) with others. The definition of SIR in
Philippine culture is principally supported by and anchored on at least six basic Filipino
Values:
- Pakikisama - Hiya - ‘Amor Proprio’
- Utang na loob - Filipino hospitality - Respect for elders
Notes in GE 5 – Ethics 1. Pakikisama is having and maintaining “good public relations”. It
characterizes both a value and a goal that involves keeping good feelings in all personal
interactions and getting along with others, oftentimes, at all costs.
To elude open displays of conflicts, clashes, and confrontations, Filipinos, because
of pakikisama, may submit to group opinion, praise one another overgenerously, use
metaphorical language rather than candid terms, conceal negative feelings or unhappy
spirits underneath a pleasant demeanor, smile even when things go wrong, avoid to say
”no”, and refrain from venting anger or losing temper 2. Hiya is described as a feeling of
lowliness, shame or embarrassment, and inhibition
or shyness which is experienced as somewhat
distressing.
The unique Filipino concept of hiya encompasses being afraid to do bad things as it
may damage one’s reputation in the sight of other people. Too much hiya, nonetheless,
may lead to having inferiority complex and losing self-confidence. 3. Amor propio is
commonly translated as “self-respect” or ”self-esteem”. It has been characterized as the
high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes him/her
to have an easily wounded pride.
Amor propio comes from the person’s tendency to protect his or her dignity and
honor. Because of amor propio, a person may refuse offers even if he/she really wants
to accept them. 4. Utang na loob is a fundamental aspect of upholding group harmony
and relationships that demand the balancing of obligations and debts. It involves the
concept of “reciprocity” or returning received favors. 5. Filipino hospitality refers to the
innate ability and trait of Filipinos to be courteous and entertaining to their guests.
Filipinos are hospitable as they are internationally known to be warm, welcoming and
accommodating. This trait, however, makes Filipinos prone to being abused or
maltreated. 6. Filipinos are not only respectful to elders, but also have unique ways of
expressing this respect to elders by means of using po and opo when talking to elders
and pagmamano or putting the elder’s hand to one’s forehead. When excessive,
nonetheless, respect to elders make one dependent or irrationally obedient to parents
or elders.
 Sikolohiyang Pilipino (also called Filipino Psychology or Indigenous Filipino
Psychology) is a psychology of, about, and for Philippine peoples. It is the psychology
rooted on the ideas, experiences, and cultural orientation of the Filipino people.
There are at least three main core values under Sikolohiyang Pilipino: 1.
Pakikipagkapwa (shared identity) entailed moral or normative elements that mandated
people to treat one another as fellow human beings, and therefore as equal. 2.
Pakikiramdam (sensitivity or shared inner perception) is usually depicted as a vital
“shared inner perception” and as “heightened awareness and sensitivity.” 3. Bahala
na (tacit trust) have long been misunderstood by outsiders as they view it as merely
exhibiting the fatalism of easy-going people. Bahala na, with its sacred undertones and
origins, implies Filipino courage in the face of various odds and possible failure, as the
one saying it is willing to take the risk, believing that Bathala shall back him or her up.

Smooth interpersonal relationship, together with pakikipagkapwa-tao, has been

deemed as a central core of essential cultural traits that form and define an almost
stereotypic Filipino character and moral behavior.

UNIVERSAL VALUES
Universal values are values generally shared by cultures. The existence of
universal values is a strong proof that cultural relativism is wrong.

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Notes in GE 5 – Ethics Universal
Values According to James Rachels
Truth-telling is indispensable in the existence of a society, for without it, there would be
no reason to pay attention to what anyone communicates with anyone. Because
complex societies cannot exist without communication among their members, the very
existence of these societies proves that truthfulness is valued in those cultures.
Respecting life necessitates the prohibition on murder. In a society where no one
thought there was anything wrong with killing others at will, avoiding people would
become a mechanism for survival and large-scale societies would therefore be
impossible.
“There are some moral rules that all societies will have in common, because those rules
are necessary for society to exist.” “Cultures may differ in what they regard as legitimate
exceptions to the rules, but this disagreement exists against a background of agreement
on the larger issues.”
Universal Values According to the United Nations
• Values enshrined in the United Nations Charter - Respect for fundamental human
rights - Social justice and human dignity - Respect for the equal rights of men and
women
• Values Needed in the Age of Globalization According to Former Secretary General
Kofi Annan - Progress - Equal Rights - Human Dignity
• Values mentioned in the Millennium Declaration as essential to international relations
in the twenty-first century - Freedom - Equality - Solidarity
Page 7 of 7 - Tolerance - Respect for Nature - Shared Responsibility
Main Reference: ETHICS: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society by Jens
Micah De Guzman et al. Culture in Moral Behavior, pages 15 – 37 Appendix J –
Sikolohiyang Pilipino, pages 247, 249 – 252
Prepared by: MICHAEL ANGELO F. EMPIZO Saint Louis College, City of San
Fernando, La Union Memorial of the Most Holy Name of Mary September 12, 2020