PART 1:

THE MORAL
AGENT
 LESSONS UNDER THIS PART ARE THE
FF:
LESSON 1: CULTURES IN MORAL BEHAVIOR
• Culture Definitions
• Culture’s role in Moral Behavior
• Moral Standards as Social Convention and Social Conditioning Theory
• Cultural Relativism in ethics
• Cultural Relativism: An Analysis
• Asian Moral Understanding
• Filipino Moral Character: Strengths and Weaknesses
• Universal Values
LESSONS UNDER THIS PART ARE THE
FF:
Lesson 2: DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS A HABIT
• Moral Character and Virtues
• The Circular Relation of Acts and Character
• Moral Character as Dispositions
• Six stages of Moral Development
• Getting to the highest level, Conscience-based moral Decisions
• Problems with Kohlberg’s Theory
 PART 1:THE MORAL AGENT

• The moral agent is a person who has the ability to

discern right from wrong and to be held
accountable for his or her own actions.
• Moral agents have a moral responsibility not to
cause unjustified harm.
 MORAL AGENCY

• Is assigned to those who can be held responsible for their

actions.
• It is an individual’s ability to make moral judgements
based on some notion of right and wrong and to be held
accountable for these actiobns.
 LESSON 1:
CULTURE IN
MORAL
BEHAVIOR
 CULTURE
• refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge,
experience, beliefs, values, attitudes, meanings,
hierarchies, religion, notion of times, roles, spatial
relations,
• Consists of patterns, explicit and implicit, of and for
behavior acquired and transmitted by symbols.
 CULTURE

• Sum total of the learned behavior of a group of people that are generally considered
to be the tradition of that people and are transmitted from generation to generation.
• In its broadest sense is cultivated behavior; that is the totality of a person’s learned,
accumulated experience which is socially transmitted or more briefly, behavior
through social learning.
• It is a symbolic communication. Some of its symbols include a group’s skills,
knowledge, attitudes, values and motives. The meaning of symbols are learned and
deliberately perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
 CULTURE’S ROLE IN THE MORAL
BEHAVIOR
People learn moral and aspects of right or wrong from transmitter of
culture through these following:
• respective parents;
• Teachers;
• Novels;
• Films; and
• television
 CULTURE’S ROLE IN THE MORAL
BEHAVIOR
• SOCIAL LEARNING is the process by which
individuals acquire knowledge from others in
the groups to which they belong, as a normal
part of childhood. The process by which infants
and children socially learn the culture, including
morality, of those around them is called
enculturation or socialization.
 “MORAL STANDARDS AS SOCIAL CONVENTION” and
the Social Conditioning Theory
Theories Explained:
The things we regards as moral laws (moral standards or rules), some purport, are
nothing but social conventions. By convention, they mean those things agreed upon by
people, like through their authorities.
Convention also refers to the usual or customary ways through which things are done
within a group.
NOTE:
• Some believe that moral standards are merely a human invention, like those
we learn from school or home.
 Theories Explained:
• According to Richard Robinson(19902-1996), in An Atheist Values he wrote,
“The Original conscience of an individual in any given society is a
historical accident, the result of the influences to which he has been subject. It
is a set of taboos and compulsion, acquired from his associates in the same
unreflecting way as all his other taboos and compulsions”.
• This theory further claims that the demands of conscience are also due to society.
A society expresses disapproval of certain actions, people, especially children,
are said to become aware of the weight of the reproof or contempt. Little by little,
people allegedly begin to exercise their disapproval of those acts. This feeling of
dissatisfaction, proponent say, develops into a habit that function as the
conscience when one considers carrying those actions.
 SOCIAL CONDITIONING
THEORY
• It is a sociological process of training individuals in society to respond in a
manner generally approved by the society in general and peer groups
within society.
• It can be observed that when one says that a particular action “ought” or “ought
not” to be done, he/she is not simply echoing social approval or disapproval.
Example given: Pre- marital Sex , Extra marital and abortion
NOTE: It is the intellect which can be molded or socially conditioned, not the
sense of moral obligation nor the so-called conscience per se.
 CULTURAL RELATIVISIM IN ETHICS
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
• Most famous and dominant form of moral relativism.
• It defines moral as what is “socially approved” by the majority in a particular culture.
• It maintains that an act is ethical in a culture that approves it, but immoral in one that
disapproves of it.

MORAL RELATIVISM
• Fundamentally believes that no act is good or bad objectively, and there is no single objective
universal standard through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.
 RACHEL’S EVALUATION OF
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
• JAMES RACHELS (1941-2003) – made a compelling assessment of Cultural
Relativism. Because the theory attains widespread prominence, it would help a lot
to consider Rachels’ comprehensive evaluation of this ethical system.
Cultural Differences Argument
We accept reasoning like these:
1. The Greeks believes it was wrong to eat the dead, whereas the Callatians (an
Indian tribe)believed it was right to eat dead. Therefore, eating the dead is
neither objectively right nor wrong. It is merely a matter of opinion, which varies
from culture to culture.
2. The Eskimos see nothing wrong with infanticide, whereas we believe infanticide
is immoral. Therefore, infanticide is neither objectively right nor wrong. It is
merely a matter of opinion, which varies from culture to culture.

NOTE:
Different cultures have different moral codes. Therefore, there is no objective
“truth” in morality. Right and wrong are only matters of opinion, and opinions
vary from culture to culture. This is the Cultural Differences Argument of
James Rachels.
 BAD CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL
RELATIVISM
• We could no longer say that the customs of other
societies are morally inferior to our own
• We could decide whether actions are right or wrong
just by consulting the standards of society
• The idea of moral progress is called into doubt
 ASIAN MORAL UNDERSTANDING
WESTERN ETHICS EASTERN ETHICS
FOCUS FINDING TRUTH PROTOCOL AND RESPECT
BASIS RATIONAL THOUGHT RELIGIOUS TEACHINGS
EMPHASIS LOGIC, CAUSE AND EFFECT RESPECT TOWARDS
FAMILY
ROOTS IN ATHENS, ROME AND HINDUISM, BUDDHISM,
JUDEOCHRISTIANITY CONFUCIANISM AND
TAOISM
APPROACH RATIONAL HOLISTIC AND CULTURAL
CONFLICT AND HARMONY GOOD MUST TRIUMP OVER GOOD AND BAD, LIGHT
EVIL AND DARK ALL EXIST
IN EQUILIBRIUM
 FILIPINO MORAL
CHARACTERISTICS: STRENGTHS
ANDORWEAKNESSES
1.“PAKIKISAMA GOOD PUBLIC RELATIONS”- This is usually being practiced to
avoid clash with other people or a certain group.
2.“HIYA”OR “FEAR OF LOSING FACE”-described as feeling of lowliness, shame or
embarrassment, or inhibition or shyness which is experiences as somewhat distressing. Integrally
“Hiya” is related to the concept of “face” and a concern with how one appears in the eyes of others.
3.“AMOR PROPIO or PRIDE”- derived from the concept of “face”. Although commonly
translated as “self-respect” or “self- esteem, “amor-propio” has been “characterized as the high degree
of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an easily wounded
pride”
4.“UTANG NA LOOBOR DEBT OF GRATITUDE”-is the fundamental aspect of upholding
group harmony and relationship that demand the balancing of obligations and debts. This involves the
concept of “reciprocity” . The inability to repay the “utang na loob” usually makes a person “walang
utang na loob” or “walang hiya”.
 5.“FILIPINO HOSPITALITY”- refers to the innate ability and trait of
Filipinos to be courteous and entertaining to their guests. Indeed generally
speaking, Filipinos are hospitable as they are intentionally known to be
warm, welcoming, and accommodating. This trait, makes Filipinos prone
to being abused or maltreated.
6.“RESPECT TO ELDERS”- Filipinos are not only respectful to others
but also have unique ways of expressing this respect to elders. These
include the use of “po” and “opo” when talking to elders and
“pagmamano” or putting the elder’s hand to one’s forehead.
 UNIVERSAL VALUES
UNIVERSAL VALUES are those values generally shared by cultures
James Rachels mentions of the two values
1. Truth-telling- indispensable in the existence of a society, for without it
there would be no reason to pay attention to what anyone communicates
with anyone.
2. Valuing and respecting life- it necessitates the prohibition on murder.
LESSON II: THE MORAL
AGENT
(DEVELOPING VIRTUE
AS HABIT)
 DEVELOPING VIRTUE AS HABIT
• MORAL CHARACTERS AND VIRTUES
• THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER
• MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS
• SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT BY LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG
 MORAL CHARACTERS AND VIRTUES

• Moral character- refers to the existence or lack of virtues as integrity, courage, fortitude, honesty
and loyalty. To say that a person has a good oral character means that he/ she is a good person and a
good citizen with a sound moral compass.
• Virtues- a state of character or habit of a person and/or the moral excellence
• Character- derived from the Greek word “character”, which was initially used as a mark
impressed upon a coin. The word “character” later came to mean a distinct mark by which one
thing was distinguished from others, and then chiefly to mean the assemblage of qualities that
distinguish one person from another. (learned behavior)
This stress on distinctiveness or individuality tends to merge “character” with “personality” in
modern usage . For instance, when thinking of person’s idiosyncratic mannerisms, social gestures,
or habits of dress, we might say that “he has personality” or that “he’s quite a character”
 THE CIRCULAR RELATION OF ACTS AND CHARACTER

• The process of moral development , there is a circular relation

between acts that build character and moral character itself. Not
all acts help to build
moral character, but those acts which emanate from moral
characters certainly matter in moral development.
• A person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral
character itself generates acts that help in developing either
virtue or vice.
 MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITIONS

• DISPOSITIONS- are particular kinds of properties or characteristics that

objects can possess.
2 KINDS OD MORAL CHARACTER AS DISPOSITION
1. VIRTUE- moral character trait for which a person is deserving
of a positive reactive attitude, such as praise or gratitude
2. VICES- moral character trait for which the agent is deserving a negative
reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame.
 SIX STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT BY LAWRENCE
KOHLBERG

• LAWRENCE KOHLBERG (1927-1987) - An

American
Psychologist best known for his theory of stages of
moral development. In principle, he agreed with the
Swiss clinical psychologist Jean Piaget’s (1869-
1980) theory of moral development but wanted to
develop his ideas further.
LEVEL AGE RANGE STAGE NATURE OF MORAL
REASONING

LEVEL 1: PRE- SEEN IN PRE-SCHOOL

CHILDREN, MOST
STAGE 1: PUNISHMENT
– AVOIDANCE AND
PEOPLE MAKE DECISION ON
WHAT IS BEST FOR
CONVENTION ELEMENTARY SCHOOL OBEDIENCE
THEMSELVES, WITHOUT
REGARD FOR OTHERS’
STUDENTS, SOME
AL JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
NEEDS OR FEELINGS. THEY
OBEY RULES ONLY IF
MORALITY STUDENTS, AND A
FEW HIGH SCHOOL
ESTABLISHED BY MORE
POWERFUL INDIVIDUALS;
THEY MAY DISOBEY IF THEY
STUDENTS AREN’T LIKELY TO GET
CAUGHT.”WRONG
BEHAVIORS ARE THOSE
THAT WILL BE PUNISHED”

STAGE 2: EXCHANGE OF PEOPLE RECOGNIZE THAT ALSO

FAVORS HAVE NEEDS. THEY MAY TRY TO
SATISFY OTHER’S NEEDS IF
THEIR OWN NEEDS ARE ALSO
MET (“YOU MAY SCRATCH MY
BACK, AND I’LL SCRATCH
YOURS”)
THEY CONTINUE TO DEFINE
RIGHT AND WRONG PRIMARILY
IN TERMS OF CONSEQUENCE TO
THEMSELVES.
LEVEL AGE RANGE STAGE NATURE OF MORAL
REASONING
SEEN IN FEW OLDER PEOPLE MAKE DECISIONS BASED
LEVEL II: ELEMENTARY SCHOOL
STAGE 3:
GOOD BOY/ GIRL
ON WHAT ACTIONS WILL PLEASE
OTHERS, ESPECIALLY
CONVENTIONAL STUDENTS, SOME JUNIOR AUTHORITY FIGURES AND
MORALITY HS STUDENTS AND MANY OTHER INDIVIDUALS WITH HIGH
HS STUDENTS (STAGE 4 STATUS ( TEACHERS, POPULAR
PEERS).THEY ARE CONCERNED
TYPICALLY DOES NOT ABOUT MAINTAINING
APPEAR UNTIL THE HIGH RELATIONSHIP THROUGH
SCHOOL YEARS) SHARING, TRUST, AND LOYALTY
AND THEY TAKE OTHER
PEOPLE’S PERSPECTIVES AND
INTENTIONS INTO ACCOUNT
WHEN MAKING DECISIONS.

STAGE 4: PEOPLELOOK FOR A SOCIETY

LAW AND ORDER AS A WHOLE FOR GUIDELINES
ABOUT RIGHT AND WRONG.
THEY KNOW RULES ARE
NECESARRY FOR KEEPING
SOCIETY RUNNING SMOOTHLY
AND BELIEVE IT IS THEIR
“DUTY” TO OBEY THEM.
LEVEL AGE RANGE STAGE NATURE OF MORAL
REASONING

LEVEL III: POST RARELY SEEN BEFORE

COLLEGE (STAGE 6 IS
STAGE 5: SOCIAL CONTRACT PEOPLE RECOGNIZE THAT RULES
REPRESENT AGRREMENTS AMONG
CONVENTIONAL EXTREMELY RARE EVEN IN
MANY INDIVIDUALS
APPROPRIATE BEHAVIOR. RULES ARE
ABOUT
MORALITY ADULTS) SEEN AS POTENTIALLY USEFUL
MECHANESISMS THAT CAN MAINTAIN
THE GENERAL SOCIAL ORER AND
PROTECT INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS,
RATHER THAN A ABSOLUTE DICTATES
THAT MUST BE OBEYED SIMPLY
BECAUSE THEY ARE LAWS. PEOPLE
ALSO RECOGNIZE THE FLEXIBILITY OF
RULES; RULES THAT NO LONGER
SERVE SOCIETY’S BEST INTEREST CAN
AND SHOULD BE CHANGED.

STAGE 6: UNIVERSAL ETHICAL STAGE 6 IS HYPOTHETICAL ,” IDEAL”

PRINCIPLE SATGE THAT FEW PEOPLE EVER
REACH. PEOPLE IN THIS STAGE
ADHERE TO A FEW ABSTRACT,
UNIVERSAL PRINCIPLES (EQUALITY
OF PEOPLE, RESPECT FOR HUMAN
DIGNITY, COMMITMENT TO
JUSTICE)THAT TRANSCEND SPECIFIC
NORMS AND RULES. THEY ANSWER
TO A STRONG INNER CONSCIENCE
AND WILLINGLY DISOBEY LAWS THAT
VIOLATE THEIR OWN ETHICAL
RINCIPLES.
• Some say that Kohlberg’s sample is biased because Kohlberg’s theory was
based on all- male sample, thus the stages reflect an androcentric or male
definition of morality. It is argued that men’s morality is basically based
on abstract principle of laws and justice whereas women’s based on
principles of compassion and care.
End of part 1….