Sampling

Sampling Terminology
Sample
A subset, or some part of a larger population. The purpose of sampling is
to estimate an unknown characteristic of a population

Population (Universe)
Any complete group of entities that share some common set of
characteristics.

Population element
An individual member of the population
Census
An investigation of all individual elements that make up the population
Why Sample

• Pragmatic reasons
• Accurate and reliable reasons
• Destruction of Test Units
Sampling Frame
A list of elements from which a sample may be drawn ; also called as
working population

Sampling Frame Error

An error that occurs when certain sample elements are not listed or
are not accurately represented in sampling frame

Sampling Unit
A single element or group of elements subject to selection in the
sample
Random Sampling and Systematic
(Nonsampling) Errors
Random Sampling Error
Is the difference between the sample result and the result of the
census conducted using identical procedure. It occurs because of
chance variation in the scientific selection of sampling units. It is a
function of sample size.

Systematic Sampling Error

It results from non sampling factors, primarily the nature of study’s
design and the correctness of execution
Types of sampling: sampling methods 
Sampling in market research is of two types – probability
sampling and non-probability sampling.

1.Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling

technique where a researcher sets a selection of a few criteria
and chooses members of a population randomly. All the
members have an equal opportunity or a known non zero
probability of selection.
2.Non-probability sampling: A sampling technique in which
units of the sample are selected on the basis of personal
judgement or convenience, the probability of any particular
member of the population being chosen is unknown .
Types of Nonprobability Sampling
• Convenience Sampling
The sampling procedure of obtaining those people or units that are
most conveniently available

• Judgement (Purposive) sampling

A non probability sampling technique in which an experienced
individual selects the sample based on personal judgement about some
appropriate characteristic of the sample member
• Quota Sampling
A procedure that ensures that various subgroups of a population will be
represented on pertinent characteristics to the exact extent that the
investigator desires

Snowball Sampling
A sampling procedure in which initial respondents are selected by probability
methods and additional respondents are obtained from information provided
by the initial respondents. It is used to locate members of rare populations by
referrals. Advantage is reduced sample size and cost
Types of Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling
A procedure that assures each element in the population of an equal
chance of being included in the sample

• Systematic Sampling
A sampling procedure in which a starting point is selected by a random
process and then every nth person on the list is selected
• Stratified Sampling
A probability sampling procedure in which simple random subsamples
that are more or less equal on some characteristic are drawn from
within each stratum of the population

Proportional Stratified Sampling

A stratified sample in which the number of sampling units drawn from
each stratum is in proportion to the population size of the stratun

Disproportional Stratified Sampling

A stratified sample in which the sample size for each stratum is
allocated as per analytical consideration
• Cluster Sampling
An economically efficient sampling technique in which the primary
sampling unit Is not the individual element in the population but a large
cluster of elements ; clusters are selected randomly

Multistage area sampling

Sampling that involves using a combination of two or more probability
sampling techniques
Variable
In statistical research, a variable is defined as an attribute of
an object of study.
Categorical variable: variables than can be put into categories. For example, the category
“Toothpaste Brands” might contain the variables Colgate and Aquafresh.
•Confounding variable: extra variables that have a hidden effect on your experimental
results.
•Continuous variable: a variable with infinite number of values, like “time” or “weight”.
•Control variable: a factor in an experiment which must be held constant. For example, in
an experiment to determine whether light makes plants grow faster, you would have to
control for soil quality and water.
•Dependent variable: the outcome of an experiment. As you change the independent
variable, you watch what happens to the dependent variable.
•Discrete variable: a variable that can only take on a certain number of values. For
example, “number of cars in a parking lot” is discrete because a car park can only hold so
many cars.
•Independent variable: a variable that is not affected by anything that you, the researcher,
does. Usually plotted on the x-axis.
•Lurking variable: a “hidden” variable the affects the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables.
•A measurement variable has a number associated with it. It’s an “amount” of
something, or a”number” of something.
•Nominal variable: another name for categorical variable.
•Ordinal variable: similar to a categorical variable, but there is a clear order. For
example, income levels of low, middle, and high could be considered ordinal.
•Qualitative variable: a broad category for any variable that can’t be counted (i.e.
has no numerical value). Nominal and ordinal variables fall under this umbrella term.
•Quantitative variable: A broad category that includes any variable that can be
counted, or has a numerical value associated with it. Examples of variables that fall
into this category include discrete variables and ratio variables.
•Random variables are associated with random processes and give numbers to
outcomes of random events.
•A ranked variable is an ordinal variable; a variable where every data point can be
put in order (1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.).
•Ratio variables: similar to interval variables, but has a meaningful zero.
• Mediator Variable
• A mediator variable explains the how or why of an (observed)
relationship between an independent variable and its dependent variable.
• In a mediation model, the independent variable cannot influence the
dependent variable directly, and instead does so by means of a third
variable, a ‘middle-man’.
• In psychology, the mediator variable is sometimes called an intervening
variable. In statistics, an intervening variable is usually considered to be
a sub-type of mediating variable. However, the lines between the two
terms are somewhat fuzzy, and they are often used interchangeably.
• Moderator Variable

A moderator variable, commonly denoted as just M, is a third variable that affects the
strength of the relationship between a dependent and independent variable In correlation, a
moderator is a third variable that affects the correlation of two variables.  In a causal
relationship, if x is the predictor variable and y is an outcome variable, then z is the
moderator variable that affects the casual relationship of x and y.  Most of the moderator
variables measure causal relationship using regression coefficient.  The moderator
variable, if found to be significant, can cause an amplifying or weakening effect between x
and y.  In ANOVA, the moderator variable effect is represented by the interaction effect
between the dependent variable and the factor variable