Chapter Three:

Laryngeal
Function &
Speech
Production
SLP 3150
Maddie Beck, B.S.

Hixon, T. J., Weismer, G., & Hoit, J. D.

(2020). Preclinical speech science: Anatomy,
physiology, acoustics, and perception. San Diego,
CA: Plural Publishing.
Attendance / Check-in
Locating Your Larynx
• Place your fingers on the middle of your throat underneath your chin.
• Now swallow.
• As you swallow, you can feel something move up and then down.
• That's your larynx.
Skeletal Framework
Thyroid Cartilage
Cricoid Cartilage
Arytenoid & Corniculate Cartilages
Epiglottis
Hyoid Bone
• Only floating bone in the
body
Laryngeal Joints
• Two pairs of joints in the larynx
Cricothyroid joints
Between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages
Cricoarytenoid joints
Between the cricoid and arytenoid cartilages
Cricothyroid Joints
• Cricoid and thyroid cartilages
are attached via the anterior,
lateral, and posterior
ceratocricoid ligaments
Cricothyroid Joints
Two motions:
• Rotating (primary motion)
• Gliding
Cricoarytenoid Joints
• Cricoid and arytenoid
cartilages are attached via the
anterior and posterior
cricoarytenoid ligaments
Cricoarytenoid Joints
Two motions:
• Rocking (primary motion)
• Gliding
Interior of the Larynx
• Laryngeal cavity
• Vocal folds
• Ventricular folds
• Laryngeal ventricles
• Laryngeal ligaments and membranes
Laryngeal Cavity

• Extends from bottom of cricoid cartilage to

laryngeal aditus
• Laryngeal aditus comprises the tops of
arytenoid (and corniculate) cartilages, sides of
epiglottis, and aryepiglottic folds
• Aryepiglottic folds run between arytenoid
cartilages and epiglottis and envelop the
aryepiglottic muscles and cuneiform cartilages
Laryngeal Cavity
• Upper region (laryngeal vestibule) is
bounded by the ventricular folds below
and laryngeal aditus above
• Lower region is bounded by the bottom
of the cricoid cartilage below and the
vocal folds above
Vocal Folds

Five layers:
• Epithelium: squamous cells
• Superficial Lamina Propria: a few
elastic fibers; also called Reinke’s space
• Intermediate Lamina Propria : many
elastic fibers
• Deep Lamina Propria : many
collagenous fibers
• Muscle: muscle fibers (thyrovocalis)
Vocal Folds
 Front

Vocal Folds
• Membranous part (anterior) lies
between thyroid cartilage and tips of
vocal processes of arytenoid
cartilages; occupies 60% of the length
• Cartilaginous part (posterior) lies
between the vocal processes and most
rearward point on medial surface of
arytenoid cartilages; occupies 40% of
length
Back
Ventricular Folds
• Sometimes called the "false
vocal folds"
• Contain ventricular ligaments
and sparse muscle fibers
Laryngeal Ventricles
• Depression between the
ventricular and true vocal
folds
• Contain mucous glands that
secrete mucus to lubricate the
vocal folds
Ligaments and Membranes
• Intrinsic ligaments and membranes connect laryngeal cartilages to
one another
• Extrinsic ligaments and membranes connect laryngeal cartilages to
outside structures
• Mucous membrane lines the entire larynx
Intrinsic Ligaments
and Membranes
• Conus elasticus connects cricoid,
arytenoid, and thyroid cartilages
• Conus elasticus gives rise to
middle cricothyroid ligament,
lateral cricothyroid membranes,
and vocal ligaments
 Intrinsic Ligaments
and Membranes
• Quadrangular membrane connects
epiglottis, thyroid cartilage,
arytenoid cartilages, and
corniculate cartilages
• Quadrangular membrane thickens
at bottom to become ventricular
ligament
• Thyroepiglottic ligament runs
from thyroid cartilage to epiglottis
Extrinsic Ligaments
and Membranes
• Cricotracheal membrane connects
cricoid cartilage to tracheal rings
• Hyoepiglottic ligament connects
hyoid bone to epiglottis
• Hyothyroid membrane connects
hyoid bone to thyroid cartilage
and gives rise to the middle and
lateral hyothyroid ligaments
Forces
• Passive
Recoil of muscles, cartilages, and connective tissues
Surface tension
Gravity

• Active
Intrinsic muscles (both attachments inside the larynx)
Extrinsic muscles (one attachment inside the larynx and one outside the larynx)
Supplementary muscles (both attachments outside the larynx; actions influence the larynx
through the hyoid bone)
Laryngeal Muscles
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

Thyroarytenoid
• Originates from inside surface of
thyroid cartilage and inserts on
ipsilateral arytenoid cartilage
• Makes up bulk of vocal folds
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Thyroarytenoid

• Contraction of longitudinal fibers

reduces distance between thyroid
and arytenoid cartilages to shorten
the vocal folds and/or increases
their internal tension
• Contraction of vertical fibers
influences ventricular folds
 Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

Thyroarytenoid may have two parts:

• Internal thyroarytenoid (thyrovocalis)
• External thyroarytenoid (thyromuscularis)
 Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

Vocal cord = vocal ligament + thyrovocalis

Vocal fold = vocal ligament + thyrovocalis + thyromuscularis
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

Posterior cricoarytenoid
• Originates on the back surface of
the cricoid cartilage and inserts
into upper and back surfaces of
muscular process of the arytenoid
cartilage
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

Posterior cricoarytenoid
• Contraction rocks arytenoid
cartilage away from midline and
may also slide it upward and
backward
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles

Lateral cricoarytenoid
• Originates from the upper rim of the
cricoid cartilage and inserts on the
muscular process and front of the
arytenoid cartilage
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Lateral cricoarytenoid
• Contraction rocks the arytenoid
cartilage toward the midline and
may slide arytenoid forward and
toward the side
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles Arytenoid (or Interarytenoid)
• Has two parts:
transverse arytenoid
oblique arytenoid

• Transverse arytenoid originates on the

back surface of one arytenoid and inserts
at the same location on the other arytenoid
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Arytenoid (or Interarytenoid)
• Oblique arytenoid originates from the back and side surface and the
muscular process of the arytenoid and inserts in the apex of the opposite
arytenoid
• Some fibers extend upward to become aryepiglottic muscles
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Arytenoid (or Interarytenoid)
• Contraction of the transverse
arytenoid pulls arytenoid cartilages
toward each other
• Contraction of the oblique arytenoid
pulls arytenoid cartilages toward each
other in a tipping action
• Contraction of the aryepiglottic
muscle pulls the epiglottis backward
and downward to cover the larynx
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Cricothyroid
• Has two parts:
pars rectus
pars oblique

• Originates from the outer front and side of

the anterior arch of the cricoid cartilage
and inserts on the outer front and side of
the lower border of the lamina and
inferior cornu of the thyroid cartilage
Intrinsic Laryngeal Muscles Cricothyroid
• Contraction increases the distance
between the upper border of the
cricoid cartilage and the lower border
of the thyroid cartilage at the front
• Primarily a rocking movement; also a
forward sliding movement effected
through the pars oblique
Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Sternothyroid
• Originates from the back surface of the
top of the sternum and the first costal
cartilage and inserts on the outer surface
of the thyroid cartilage
• Contraction pulls the thyroid cartilage
downward
Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Thyrohyoid
• Originates in the outer surface of the
thyroid cartilage and inserts on lower
end of the greater cornu of the hyoid
bone
• Contraction decreases the distance
between the thyroid cartilage and hyoid
bone
Extrinsic Laryngeal Muscles
Inferior constrictor
• Originates from the median raphe (seam)
at the back of the pharynx and inserts on
the sides of the cricoid and thyroid
cartilages
• Contraction moves the sidewall of the
lower pharynx inward
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles

• Infrahyoid = originates below the hyoid bone

• Suprahyoid = originates above the hyoid bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles: Infrahyoid

Sternohyoid
• Originates from the back surface of the
top of the sternum and inner end of the
clavicle and inserts on the lower edge
of the body of the hyoid bone
• Contraction pulls downward on hyoid
bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles:
Infrahyoid
Omohyoid
• Posterior belly originates from the upper
edge of the scapula and inserts on a tendon
near the sternum
• Anterior belly originates from the same
tendon near the sternum and inserts in the
lower edge of he greater cornu of the
hyoid bone
• Contraction pulls downward and
backward on hyoid bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles:
Suprahyoid
Digastric
• Anterior belly originates from inside the
lower border of the mandible and inserts
into a tendon
• Posterior belly originates from the mastoid
process of the temporal bone and inserts
into the same tendon
• Contraction pulls the hyoid bone upward
and forward or upward and backward
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles: Suprahyoid
Stylohyoid
• Originates from the back and side
surfaces of the styloid process of the
temporal bone and inserts into hyoid
bone
• Contraction pulls upward and backward
on the hyoid bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles: Suprahyoid
Mylohyoid
• Originates along the inner surface of the
body of the mandible and inserts into a
tendinous midline raphe or the front
surface of the hyoid bone
• Contraction pulls upward and forward
on the hyoid bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles: Suprahyoid
Geniohyoid
• Originates from the inner surface of the
front of the mandible to the front
surface of the body of the hyoid bone
(runs essentially parallel to the anterior
belly of the digastic muscle)
• Contraction can pull upward and
forward on the hyoid bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles: Suprahyoid
Hyoglossus
• Originates from the side of the tongue
and inserts on the body and greater
cornu of the hyoid bone
• Contraction can pull up on the hyoid
bone
Supplementary Laryngeal Muscles: Suprahyoid
Genioglossus
• Originates from the inner surface of the
mandible and inserts into the
undersurface of the tongue body and the
body of the hyoid bone
• Contraction can pull the hyoid bone
upward and forward
 Vocal Fold Movements
• Abduction
• Adduction
• Length change
Vocal Fold Abduction
• Abduction = movement of vocal folds away from midline
• Posterior cricoarytenoid muscles are primary abductors
• Another much weaker abductory force can be exerted
through a downward pull on the conus elasticus ("tracheal
tug")
Vocal Fold Adduction
• Adduction = movement of vocal folds toward midline
• Lateral cricoarytenoid muscles adduct the anterior 2/3's
of the vocal folds; arytenoid muscles adduct the
posterior 1/3 of the vocal folds
Vocal Fold Adduction
• Once fully approximated, the amount
of medial contact can be adjusted by
contraction of the thyroarytenoid
muscles
• The force of contact ("squeeze") can
be adjusted by the lateral
cricoarytenoid and arytenoid muscles
Vocal Fold Length Change
• Can be mediated through the
cricothyroid joints
• Vocal folds lengthen with
contraction of the cricothyroid
muscles and shorten with
contraction of the thyroarytenoid
muscles
Vocal Fold Length Change
• Can also be mediated through the cricoarytenoid joints
• Vocal folds lengthen with abduction effected by the
posterior cricoarytenoid muscles and shorten with
adduction effected by the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles
Ventricular Fold and Epiglottis Movements
• Ventricular folds
Configuration and position changes, with possible
contributions of upward-extending fibers of thyromuscularis
muscles
• Epiglottis
Configuration and position changes, with possible
contributions of aryepiglottic muscles and movements of other
structures
Laryngeal Housing Movements

Upward/downward and forward/backward movements of

laryngeal housing by extrinsic and supplemental muscles
Laryngeal Control Variables
• Laryngeal opposing pressure
• Laryngeal airway resistance
• Glottal size and configuration
• Stiffness of the vocal folds
• Effective mass of the vocal folds
Laryngeal Opposing Pressure
Contributors:

* Muscular pressure
Surface tension
Gravity
* Compressive muscular
pressure is the greatest
contributor
Laryngeal Airway Resistance

Laryngeal airway resistance

is the opposition provided by
the larynx to the mass flow
of air through it

Low resistance Infinite resistance

Glottal Size and Configuration

The main contributor to glottal size and configuration

is vocal fold abduction / adduction
Stiffness of the Vocal Folds

Major contributors to vocal fold stiffness are the longitudinal

tension exerted by the cricothyroid muscles and activation of
the muscles within the vocal folds (thyroarytenoid muscles)
Effective Mass of the Vocal Folds

Medial compression can change the effective mass of the

vocal folds (for example, the mass of the vocal folds that
participate in vibration).
Neural Substrates
Laryngeal Functions
• Degree of coupling between the trachea and the
pharynx
• Protection of the pulmonary airways
• Containment of the pulmonary air supply
• Sound generation
Laryngeal Function in Speech Production
• Transient utterances
• Sustained utterances
Turbulence noise production
Voice production
• Running speech activities
 • Vocal folds adduct
Transient Utterances
• Air pressure increases in
tracheal airspace
• Abrupt release of adductory
force followed by abrupt
release of tracheal pressure
• Rapid flow of air through
the glottis and generation of
Glottal stop-plosive turbulence noise
Sustained Turbulence Noise
• Airflow through constricted
airway becomes turbulent (air
molecules tumble on
themselves) and creates noise
• Different glottal shapes are
possible for whispering
Whispering and glottal fricative
Voice Production
• Vocal fold vibration
• Fundamental frequency
• Sound pressure level
• Fundamental frequency – sound pressure level profiles
• Spectrum
• Voice registers
Vocal Fold Vibration

It is the abrupt cessation of airflow that creates the

acoustic disturbance heard as voice
Vocal Fold Vibration

• Medial surfaces of the

vocal folds separate at the
bottom first and return to
midline at the bottom first
• Sometimes called "vertical
phase difference" or
"mucosal wave"
Vocal Fold Vibration

• Sometimes conceptualized
as having two modes of
movement: translational and
rotational
High Speech Video of Vocal Fold Vibrations
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9kHdhbEnhoA
Vocal Fold Vibration
• High intraglottal pressure (Pg)
pushes vocal folds away from
midline creating a convergent glottis
• Elastic recoil of tissue overcomes Pg
and lower edges of vocal folds
(followed by upper edges) move
toward midline creating a divergent
glottis
Vocal Fold Vibration: Key Points
• Intraglottal pressure (Pg) changes in phase with tissue velocity (they
work together)
• As air flows through glottis and hits the air column above, Pg
increases; as the column of air moves away (toward the airway
opening), Pg decreases
• Alternation between convergent and divergent glottal shapes is the
mucosal wave or vertical phase difference
• Note that there is no “Bernoulli Effect" because Pg does not have to
be negative (below atmospheric pressure)
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation
• Vocal folds: tendon + muscle + mucus membrane
• VFs behind Adam’s apple or thyroid cartilage
• Tension & elasticity:
• They can get thinner and thicker
• They can get shorter or longer
• They can be widely separated
• They can be brought together
• They can be put in the intermediate position
• They can be elevated or depressed

• In connected speech, all these adjustments occur rapidly

84
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation-Cont’d
• Phonatory mode: when VFs are brought together and are vibrating
Produce “Bronx cheer” or “raspberry” (blowing through closed lips with the tongue
between them)

• Aerodynamic: Audible sound is produced by forcing of inhaled air on the VFs

VFs are activated by the airstream from lungs rather than nerve impulses

85
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation-Cont’d

• Myoelastic: ways in which the muscles control the elasticity and tension on
VFs so that they can set into vibration and so that changes can be made in
their frequency of vibration.
• F0 of phonation: number of vibration of VFs per second
Males: 125 Hz
Females: >=200Hz
Children: >=300 Hz

86
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation-Cont’d
• Determinants of F0:

• VF’s length: the greater the length, the higher F0 (less mass, more tense)

• VF’s mass: the greater the vibrating mass, the lower F0

• Men have longer and more massive VFs than women

• VF’s size:
Men: 17-24mm
Women: 13-17 mm

87
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation-Cont’d

• A person can increase frequency of vibration by lengthening and tensing VFs which
decreases mass and increase elasticity
• Mass and tension are more important than length in determining f 0.

• Lengthening VFs makes VFs longer makes them less massive and more tense  increases f0.

• VFs can be stretched by 3-4 mm (in singers): bass voice (80 Hz) ~ lyric suprano (1 kHz)

88
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation-Cont’d
• Muscles bring VFs together
Muscles regulate VFs thickness and tension to alter f0.
• But, determinant of vibratory cycle is aerodynamic
Air pressure from lungs blows the VFs apart and opens glottis during each vibration
VFs come together again during each vibration because
1. Maintenance of instructions to muscles to keep the VFs adducted during phonation
2. Inherent elasticity of VFs
3. Sudden drop in air pressure below VFs as VFs are forced apart allowing air flow to
streams through the open glottis.

89
Myoelastic Aerodynamic Theory of Phonation-
Cont’d

•Vibration of the vocal folds depends on:

Myoelastic component of muscle (myo = muscle) and the soft tissues of the
larynx
Aerodynamic component is airflow and pressure through this compressed
tube
 Summary of the Myloelastic-Aerodynamic Theory
1. This theory explains vocal folds vibration. First we inhale and lungs are filled with air.
2. Then adductor muscles contract and vocal folds are brought together.
3. There is an air pressure build up below the level of the vocal folds (subglottal pressure is
positive).
4. The vocal folds are then blown apart and a puff of air is released.
5. The elasticity of the tissue of the vocal folds and negative pressure as a result of the
Bernoulli effect bring the vocal folds back together again and this
6. Cycle repeats.
Fundamental Frequency
• Fundamental frequency = rate of vocal fold vibration
(expressed in Hertz, Hz, cycles/second)
• Closest perceptual correlate = pitch
• Control of fundamental frequency is primarily vested in
the larynx
• Fundamental frequency is determined by vocal fold
stiffness and their effective vibrating mass (stiffness is
the most important!)
The stiffer the vocal folds, the higher the rate at which
they vibrate
Fundamental Frequency
The most important mechanism for changing vocal fold stiffness
(and, therefore, fundamental frequency) is through the external
force exerted by the cricothyroid muscles and the internal force
exerted through the thyroarytenoid muscles
Fundamental Frequency

Many combinations of cricothyroid + thyroarytenoid

muscle activity can be used to produce the same
Fundamental Frequency
Two other (secondary) laryngeal mechanisms for changing
fundamental frequency:

(1) Medial compression (by lateral cricoarytenoid muscle

activation) can decrease the effective mass of the vibrating portions
of the vocal folds and thereby increase fundamental frequency

(2) Laryngeal elevation (probably by thyrohyoid muscle activation)

can increase vocal fold stiffness and thereby increase fundamental
frequency
Sound Pressure Level
• Sound pressure level (SPL) is a measure of the physical
magnitude of the acoustic signal (in decibels, dB)

• Closest perceptual correlate = loudness

• Control of sound pressure level is vested in the breathing,

laryngeal, and pharyngeal-oral apparatuses

• Most important features of laryngeal behavior relative to SPL are

(a) the speed with which the vocal folds snap together and airflow
declines
(b) the average size of the glottis
 Fundamental Frequency:
Sound Pressure Level Profiles

• Fundamental frequency range is greatest in mid-sound

pressure level range
• Sound pressure level range is greatest in mid-
fundamental frequency range
Spectrum

• Spectrum = fundamental frequency – sound pressure level

composition (depends on both the laryngeal voice source
and the "filter" that shapes the source)

• The closest perceptual correlate is voice quality

• One voice quality continuum is "pressed" to "breathy" voice

Voice Registers
Voice register = a series of
consecutive tones of similar
quality (perceptual
phenomenon) with similar
modes of vibration
(physiologic phenomenon)
pulse …….….modal……………loft
(vocal fry) (falsetto)
Voice Registers

Modal register:
Triangular waveform
Vertical phase difference
Relatively large vocal fold excursions
Moderate stiffness
Large dynamic range

Hoit & Weismer (2020)

Voice Registers
Loft register:
No vertical phase difference
Small excursions
Vocal folds do not approximate
Very stiff
May have 3-5 tone overlap with modal register

Hoit & Weismer (2020)

Voice Registers

Pulse register:
Spiked waveform (fast open/close, long closed)
Large vertical phase difference
Slack folds (low stiffness)
Limited dynamic range

Hoit & Weismer (2020)

Running Speech Activities

Functions of the larynx include:

• Abduction for inspiration, adduction for voicing
• Fundamental frequency, sound pressure level, and
spectral changes to convey emotion, meaning, and other
information
• Abduction/adduction for articulatory functions (glottal
stop-plosives and fricatives, voiced/voiceless consonants)
Running Speech Activities

• Variations in fundamental frequency controlled primarily by

cricothyroid and thyroarytenoid muscle activations
• Variations in tracheal pressure can also contribute slightly to
fundamental frequency variation
Running Speech Activities

Variations in sound pressure level are related to changes in

tracheal pressure, laryngeal opposing pressure, and mouth
opening
Development

During infancy and childhood the larynx enlarges (increases in

mass) and descends within the neck

Fundamental frequency decreases across infancy and childhood in

both boys and girls
Aging

• Cartilages ossify and calcify, muscles atrophy. connective

and epithelial tissues change
• Glottal configuration may change with age
• Overall slowing of movements
…chronological vs biological age…
Sex
• Males have lower fundamental
frequencies than females after
puberty
• Fundamental frequency is related
to vocal fold mass which is related
to overall size (mostly height) and
angle of the thyroid cartilage
(sharper angle in males)
Larynx Video Links
• How the larynx produces sound
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b89RSYCaUBo

• Process of phonation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Aoa_N1vQS4M
QUESTIONS?