Latest industrial applications

• Developed at D-Wave systems

• The D-Wave 2X™ System
• Cooled at 0.015 Kelvin =-272 Celsius
• Shielded to 50,000× less than Earth’s magnetic field
• In a high vacuum: pressure is 10 billion times lower
than atmospheric pressure
• 192 i/o and control lines from room temperature to
the chip
• "The Fridge" and servers consume just 25kW of
power
• Power demand won’t increase as it scales to
thousands of qubits
 Latest industrial applications
• Developed at D-Wave systems
• The D-Wave 2X™ System
• Cooled at 0.015 Kelvin =-272 Celsius
• Shielded to 50,000× less than Earth’s magnetic field
• In a high vacuum: pressure is 10 billion times lower
than atmospheric pressure
• 192 i/o and control lines from room temperature to
the chip
• "The Fridge" and servers consume just 24.8kW of
power (conventional supercomputer 2526.5kW)
• Power demand won’t increase as it scales to
thousands of qubits
 Complex Networks
• A new science since 1998
– Related to physics, complex systems
(thermodynamics) and statistical physics
– Has soared since 2000
• The problem with computer design is
twofold
– Computation (designing the core or
processing element)
– Communication (is the bus a good enough
resource?)
 Complex Networks
• The problem with the BUS
– Bringing the microprocessor within the
DSM (Deep Sub-Micron) domain
exacerbated the unbalance between
gate delays and wire delays on-chip
– Thus the on-chip interconnection is now
the dominant factor in determining
performance
– NoC, a new on-chip communication
paradigm
 Industrial interest?
• The new trend in HW
– Systems-On-Chip or Systems-On-Silicon
– Networks-On-Chip
• A broad topic of research and development in the new
millennium
– Why on-chip networking?
• SoC complexity is high, comparable to skyscrapers or
aircraft carriers, or city traffic
• How do we deal with the high complexity?
BUS problem
Network
 Networks-on-Chip
• The emergent NoC communication paradigm
consists of exchanging packets of information
among various nodes in the network
– Each node
• A core (DSP, CPU, GPU, Embedded Memory,
application specific PE)
• And a router meant to forward the incoming packets
from the neighboring nodes in the networks
– A packet generated at source (1,1) that needs to be
delivered to destination (2,3) via a static XY-routing
• Is first sent from the local PE to the associated router at tile (1,1)
• Then, at each intermediate node, a routing decision is made
based on the header information (on the shortest source-
destination path)
 Networks-on-Chip
• The emergent NoC communication paradigm
consists of exchanging packets of information
among various nodes in the network

– To avoid stalling of information flow due to dependencies

on network resources (i.e. shared routing paths)
• The concept of virtual channel (VC) has been
introduced as well

– VCs share dedicated links and provide multiple buffers

for each channel
Networks-on-Chip•flows
Two distinct data

•Reserving the VCs

between common
nodes
 Networks-on-Chip
• What are the fundamental mathematical
techniques that can be used to design, control
and optimize such networks in a rigorous manner?
– One powerful technique is Linear Programming (LP) used to solve
maximum flow problems
– The goal of LP is to find a legal flow assignment of the edges of a
given graph satisfying the flow conservation constraints
– For small problems these approaches work in a deterministic
fashion. For large problems the solution is still based on heuristics
• Early studies of the network dynamics use queueing theory
– First developed by Markov, Erlang and
– Formalized by Kolmogorov and Kendall
– But most of these queueing techniques rely on exponential-type
distributions which are not realistic in many cases on real-life traffic
 Networks-on-Chip
• A new vision [Marculescu, Bogdan] is to use
statistical physics and information theory that
allow us to model the network as a
thermodynamical system

Max Plank, 1858-1947

– More powerful tools for predicting and optimizing the network

– Radu Marculescu, Paul Bogdan: The Chip Is the Network: Toward a
Science of Network-on-Chip Design. Foundations and Trends in
Electronic Design Automation 2(4): 371-461 (2009)
 Communication network
• It’s easier said than done
• A lot of problems appear, related to
• Communication latency
• Frequency of deadlocks
• Power consumption
• Cost
• Implementation efficiency (VLSI)
• Therefore, the HW designer has everything to do
• From the NoC topology to the routing algorithm
• Networking science
 The science of networks

• Is primary based on the graph theory

– 1736, Leonhart Euler offered the rigurous solution
for the “7 bridges of Konigsberg” problem
 The science of networks
• Landmass – node (vertex)
• Bridge – edge (link)
• Euler proved that a path that crosses all 7
bridges in the city of Konigsberg only once
could not exist
• Mathematical paradigm based on points
linked by edges and represented via
adjacency matrices
• Static graphs have a plethora of applications
 Static graph applications
• Cayley graphs in the field of chemistry
(study of compound molecules)
• Graph coloring
– Register allocation, scheduling and
compiler design
• Trees with applications in railway
system design
• Finding the optimal cycle in a graph
(traveling salesman problem) with app
in VLSI design
 More than 2 centuries after that…
• 1960- Paul Erdos, Alfred Renyi
The random graph
effect

ln N
N

•Random graphs
•Revolutionized the way we perceive real systems (rail, road,
airplane, electronic networks, etc.)
•Similar to regular graphs, but any edge between 2 arbitrary nodes
has a certain probability p  0,1 of being connected (1 means surely
connected)
– If p>pc with
• Almost every random
graph is connected

ln N
pc ~
N
 Random graphs
• Have paved way for a bridge between graph and
probability theories
– Introduces the possibility of modeling social
communication, collaboration or biological networks
• Understanding the network behavior requires
– deep analysis of the topology, and
– pattern of communication among the network
components
• A breakthrough in the field of complex networks
/graph theory took place in the late1990s - early
2000s
– Due to physicists who questioned the evolution and
structure of real networks