VARDHAMAN COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ,HYDERABAD

Autonomous Institute affiliated to JNTUH

DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Computer Networks
Ms. Farhana Begum
Assistant Professor
 COURSE OVERVIEW
• The growing importance of Internetworking in recent years and their use in every
field has made Computer Networks a central issue for modern systems.
• The course introduces the basic concepts of networks and some of the issues of
Network Security.
• The main objective of the course is to enable students to know the functions of
various layers of a network model.
• Topics covered in the course include Introduction to networks, physical layer, data
link layer, medium access sub layer, network layer, transport layer and application
layer includes interfaces.
 COURSE OBJECTIVE

• The course enables the students to apply the concepts of computer networks in
the real world services.
 COURSE CONTENT
• INTRODUCTION: Network hardware, Reference models: OSI, TCP/IP, Internet,
Connection oriented network and connectionless network.
• THE PHYSICAL LAYER: Guided transmission media, wireless transmission media.
• THE DATA LINK LAYER: Design issues, error detection and correction, elementary
data link protocols, sliding window protocols.
• THE MEDIUM ACCESS SUBLAYER: Channel allocations problem, multiple access
protocols : ALOHA, CSMA, Collision free protocols; Ethernet, Data Link Layer
switching.
• THE NETWORK LAYER: Network layer design issues, Routing Algorithms: Shortest
path routing, flooding, distance vector routing, link state routing. Congestion control
algorithms, the network layer in the internet: IPv4, Sub-netting, Super-netting, CIDR,
NAT and IPv6.
 COURSE CONTENT
• THE TRANSPORT LAYER: Transport service, elements of transport protocol, Simple
Transport Protocol, Internet transport layer protocols: UDP and TCP, Introduction, The
TCP service model, The TCP protocol, The TCP Segment Header, TCP connection
establishment, connection release, TCP sliding window, TCP Timer management, TCP
Congestion control, Performance issues.
• THE APPLICATION LAYER: Domain name system- DNS Name Space, Domain Resource
Records, Name Servers.
• APPLICATION LAYER PROTOCOLS: Simple Network Management Protocol, File Transfer
Protocol, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol, Telnet
 TEXT BOOKS

1. A.S. Tanenbaum, Computer Networks (2003), 4thed, Pearson Education/ PHI. New
Delhi, India.
2. Bhavneeth Sidhu, “An Integrated Approach to Computer Networks”, Khanna
Publishing House

REFERENCE BOOKS

1. William Stallings (2006), Cryptography and network security, 4thedition, Pearson

Education, India.
2. Behrouz A. Ferozen (2006), Data communication and Networking, Tata McGraw-
Hill, India.
 What is Computer Networks?

• A set of communication elements connected by communication links.

• Communication elements - Computer , Printer , Mobile and Router

• Communication links -Wired (optical Fiber , Coaxial Fiber , Twisted Pair

Wireless(Radio Waves ,Satellite , Micro Waves)

• Topology -Arrangement of elements (Star,Bus,Ring,Mesh)

 Computer Networks
• A Computer is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other
to share information and resources.
 Uses of Computer Networks
• Business Applications
• Home Applications
• Mobile Users
• Social Issues
 Business Applications
• A network with two clients and one server
 Business Applications(Cont’d)
• The client-server model involves requests and replies
 Business Applications(Cont’d)
• Goals of Networks
• Resource Sharing
• Providing Communication Media
• Doing Business electronically
• Business with Consumer
 Home Applications
• Access to remote information
• Person to Person Communication
• Interactive Entertainment
• Electronic commerce
 Home Applications(Cont’d)
• In a peer-to-peer system there are no fixed clients and servers.
 Home Applications(Cont’d)
• Some forms of e-commerce
 Mobile Users
• Combinations of wireless networks and mobile computing
 Social Issues
• Network neutrality
• Profiling users
• Phishing
 Network Hardware
• Personal area networks(PAN)
• Local area networks(LAN)
• Metropolitan area networks(MAN)
• Wide area networks(WAN)
• Wireless networks
• Internetworks
 Types of Transmission Technology
• Broadcast Cast Link – Single communication channel shared by all machines.
• Broadcasting - Single communication channel pass the message to all
machines ,each packet consist of address field.
• Multicasting -Reserve one bit to indicate multicast and remaining n-1 bits
can hold group no.
• Point to Point Link – It involves only two nodes.
Classification of interconnected processors by scale
 Topologies
• Bus
• Ring
• Star
• Mesh
• Tree
 Bus Topology

• All the device connected to a single link in a network.

• Multipoint

1 3 5

2 4
 Ring Topology
• Each device is connected to next device until last one connected to first.
• Multipoint 1

5 2

4 3
 Star Topology
• All the devices are connected to central device called HUB.
• Point to Point 2
1 3

HUB

6 4
5
 Mesh Topology
• Each device has a dedicated Point to Point link to every other device.
• Links for n devices is n(n-1)/2
1 1 2

5
4 2
6
3
4 3

Ex: N=4 ,
Links= 4(4-1)/2
=4(3)/2
=6
 Tree Topology
• It is a variation of star topology
• Devices in a tree linked to central HUB.
 Local Area Networks
• Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within
a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.

• LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics

• Size
• Transmission technology
• Topology.

• LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the
machines are attached.
 Local Area Networks(Cont’d)
• LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or
nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
• Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
• Various topologies are possible for broadcast LANs(Bus and Ring)
 Local Area Networks(Cont’d)
• Broadcast networks can be further divided into
• Static
• Dynamic
• Static allocation would be to divide time into discrete intervals and
use a round-robin algorithm, allowing each machine to broadcast only
when its time slot comes up.
 Local Area Networks(Cont’d)
• Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are either
• Centralized
• Decentralized.
• In the centralized channel allocation method, there is a single entity.
• In the decentralized channel allocation method, there is a no central
entity.
 Metropolitan Area Network
• A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city.
• Example: Cable television network available in many cities.
• At First, these were locally designed ,adhoc systems.
• Companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from city
governments to wire up an entire city.
• The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for
cable only.
 Wide Area Network
• A wide area network, or WAN, spans a large geographical area, often a country or
continent.
• Wide area networks, the subnet consists of two distinct components
• Transmission lines
• Switching elements
• Transmission lines move bits between machines. They can be made of copper
wire, optical fiber, or even radio links.
• Switching elements are specialized computers that connect three or more
transmission lines.
 Wide Area Network
• When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an
outgoing line on which to forward them.
• Its only meaning was the collection of routers and communication lines that
moved packets from the source host to the destination host.
 Wide Area Network
• Relation between hosts on LANs and the subnet
 Wide Area Network
• In most WANs, the network contains numerous transmission lines, each one
connecting a pair of routers.
• If two routers that do not share a transmission line wish to communicate, they
must do this indirectly, via other routers.
• A subnet organized according to this principle is called a store-and-forward or
packet-switched subnet.
 Wide Area Network

A stream of packets from sender to receiver

 Wireless Networks
• Wireless networks can be divided into three main categories
• System interconnection.
• Wireless LANs
• Wireless WANs.
• System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a
computer using short-range radio.
• Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headsets, scanners, and other devices to
connect to a computer by merely being brought within range. No cables, no
driver installation, just put them down, turn them on, and they work
 Wireless Networks

(a) Bluetooth configuration.

(b) Wireless LAN
 Wireless Networks
• Wireless LANs- These are systems in which every computer has a radio modem
and antenna with which it can communicate with other systems
• Wireless WANs- The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of a
low-bandwidth wireless system.
• This system has already gone through three generations.
 Wireless Networks
• The first generation was analog and for voice only.
• The second generation was digital and for voice only.
• The third generation is digital and is for both voice and data.
• Cellular wireless networks are like wireless LANs, except that the distances
involved are much greater and the bit rates much lower.
• Wireless LANs can operate at rates up to about 50 Mbps over distances of tens of
meters
 Home Networks
• Computers (desktop PC, notebook PC, PDA)
• Entertainment (TV, DVD, VCR, camera, MP3)
• Telecommunications (telephone, mobile telephone, fax).
• Appliances (microwave, refrigerator, clock, lights)
• Telemetry (smoke/burglar alarm).
 Home Networks
• Home networking has some fundamentally different properties than
other network types
• First, the network and devices have to be easy to install.
• Second, the network and devices have to be foolproof in operation.
• Third, low price is essential for success.
 Home Networks
• Fourth, the main application is likely to involve multimedia, so the
network needs sufficient capacity
• Fifth, it must be possible to start out with one or two devices and
expand the reach of the network gradually.
• Sixth, security and reliability will be very important.
 Internetworks
• Many networks exist in the world, often with different hardware and software.
People connected to one network often want to communicate with people
attached to a different one.
• A collection of interconnected networks is called an internetwork or internet.
• A common form of internet is a collection of LANs connected by a WAN.
• An internetwork is formed when distinct networks are interconnected.
• Connecting a LAN and a WAN or connecting two LANs forms an internetwork.
 Network Software
• Protocol hierarchies
• Design issues for the layers
• Connection-oriented versus connectionless service
• Service primitives
• Relationship of services to protocols
 Protocol Hierarchies
• Protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how
communication is to proceed.
• Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.
• A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.
• List of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a
protocol stack.
 Protocol Hierarchies
• Layers, protocols, and interfaces.
 Protocol Hierarchies
Example
 Design Issues for the Layers
• Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers.
• Another set of design decisions concerns the rules for data transfer.
 Design Issues for the Layers
• Error control is an important issue because physical communication circuits are
not perfect.
• Not all communication channels preserve the order of messages sent on them.
• An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a
slow receiver with data.
• Another problem that must be solved at several levels is the inability of all
processes to accept arbitrarily long messages.
 Design Issues for the Layers
• When it is inconvenient or expensive to set up a separate connection
for each pair of communicating processes ,the underlying layer may
decide to use the same connection for multiple.
• When there are multiple paths between source and destination, a
route must be chosen.
 Connection-oriented versus Connectionless
Service
• Connection Oriented Service Six different types of service
• First establish the connection
• Use the Connection
• Release the connection
 Service Primitives
• A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a
user process to access the service

LISTEN
CONNECT

SERVER RECEIVE CLIENT

SEND
DISCONNECT

• Five service primitives for implementing a simple connection-oriented

service.
 Service Primitives
• Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a connection-oriented
network
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• Service is a set of primitives (operations) that a layer provides to the layer above
it.
• Protocol is a set of rules governing the format and meaning of the packets, or
messages that are exchanged by the peer entities within a layer.
• Services relate to the interfaces between layers where as protocols relate to the
packets sent between peer entities on different machines.
 The Relationship of Services to Protocols
• The relationship between a service and a protocol
 Reference Models
OSI(Open System Interconnection)
• OSI developed by ISO(international Standards Organization)
All
People
Seems
To
Near
Dominos
Pizza
OSI Reference Model
 Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits from one (node)
to the next.
• Functions
• Transmission Media - Guided Transmission Media,Wireless Transmission
• Types of Encoding
• Data Rate
• Synchronization of bits
• Transmission Technology –Broadcast Link ,Point to Point
• Topology - Bus, Ring, Star, Mesh, Tree
• Transmission Mode - Simplex, Half Duplex, Full Duplex
 Data Link Layer
• The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one (node) to the next.
• Functions
• Framing
• Physical Addressing –MAC
• Flow Control
• Error Control
• Access Control
 Network Layer
• The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host.
• Functions
• Logical Addressing -IPV4/IPV6
• Routing
• Congestion Control
• QOS(Delay ,Transmit Time , Jitter)
 Transport Layer
• Heart of OSI Model
• End to end layer.
• The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
• Function
• Service Point Addressing -Port no
• Segmentation
• Connection Control Connection Oriented(Transmission Control Protocol)
Connection Less(User Datagram Protocol)
• Flow and Error Control
 Session Layer
• The session layer allow users on different machines to establish sessions
between them.
• Functions
• Dialog control
• Synchronization
• Authentication
• Authorization
 Presentation Layer
• The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information transmitted.
• Functions
• Translation
• Compression
• Encryption
 Application Layer
• The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
• Functions
• Virtual Terminal - Telnet
• File Transfer - FTP
• Email Services -SMTP
• Web Surfing -HTTP/HTTPS
 TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol)Model
 Host-to-Network Layer
• Host has to connect to the network using some protocol.
• Used for transmission of data.
 Internet Layer
• Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have them travel
independently to the destination.
• The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called IP
(Internet Protocol).
• The job of the internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to
go.
 Transport Layer
• Two end-to-end transport protocols have been defined here.
• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable connection-oriented protocol.
• UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless protocol.
 Application Layer
• It contains all the higher-level protocols.
• Virtual terminal (TELNET)
• File transfer (FTP)
• Electronic mail (SMTP)
• Domain Name System (DNS) for mapping host names onto their network
addresses
TCP/IP Model
Comparison of OSI and TCP/IP Models

OSI TCP/IP
• Reference model • Implementation of OSI model
• It has of 7 layers • It has of 4 layers
• Has separate session and presentation • Combines the session and presentation
layer layer in application layer
• It supports connection oriented • It supports only connection oriented
and connection less
• Model - First • Protocol -First
Protocol - Next Model - Next
• Protocol independent standard • Protocol dependent standard
 Internet
• The Internet is not a network at all, but a vast collection of different
networks that use certain common protocols and provide certain
common services.
 The ARPANET
• Structure of the Telephone System
 The ARPANET
• In 1969 First network came into existence ARPANET(ADVANCED RESEARCH PROJECT
AGENCY NETWORK) was started to connect computers at U.S defense & different
universities.
• The subnet would consist of minicomputers called IMPs (Interface Message Processors)
connected by 56-kbps transmission lines.
• Each node of the network was to consist of an IMP and a host, in the same room,
connected by a short wire.
• The subnet was the first electronic store-and-forward packet-switching network.
• The software was split into two parts: subnet and host.
• The subnet software consisted of the IMP end of the host-IMP connection, the IMP-IMP
protocol, and a source IMP to destination IMP protocol designed to improve reliability.
 The ARPANET
• The original ARPANET design
 The ARPANET
• Outside the subnet, software was also needed, namely, the host end of the host-
IMP connection, the host-host protocol, and the application software.
• During the 1980s, additional networks, especially LANs, were connected to the
ARPANET.
• DNS (Domain Name System) was created to organize machines into domains and
map host names onto IP addresses.
 NSFNET
• By the late 1970s, NSF (the U.S. National Science Foundation) saw the enormous
impact the ARPANET was having on university research, allowing scientists across
the country to share data and collaborate on research projects.
• NSF decided to build a backbone network to connect its six supercomputer
centers.
• NSF also funded some (eventually about 20) regional networks that connected to
the backbone to allow users at thousands of universities, research labs, libraries,
and museums to access any of the supercomputers and to communicate with one
another.
 NSFNET
• To ease the transition and make sure every regional network could communicate
with every other regional network.
• The complete network, including the backbone and the regional networks, was
called NSFNET.
 Internet Usage
• The number of networks, machines, and users connected to the ARPANET grew
rapidly after TCP/IP .
• When NSFNET and the ARPANET were interconnected, the growth became
exponential
• Traditionally ,the Internet had four main applications.
• Email
• News
• Remote Login
• File Transfer
• In early 1990s, the Internet was largely populated by academic, government, and
industrial researchers. One new application, the WWW (World Wide Web)
changed all that and brought millions of new, nonacademic users to the net.
 Internet Usage
• For example, many companies have a home page with entries pointing to other
pages for product information, price lists, sales, technical support,
communication with employees, stockholder information, and more.
• Numerous other kinds of pages have come into existence in a very short time,
including maps, stock market tables, library card catalogs, recorded radio
programs, and Many people also have personal pages (home pages).
 Architecture of the Internet
Overview of the Internet
 Architecture of the Internet
• A good place to start is with a client at home. Let us assume our client calls his or
her ISP over a dial-up telephone line.
• The modem is a card within the PC that converts the digital signals the computer
produces to analog signals that can pass unhindered over the telephone system.
• These signals are transferred to the ISP's POP (Point of Presence), where they are
removed from the telephone system and injected into the ISP's regional network.
 Architecture of the Internet
• The ISP's regional network consists of interconnected routers in the various cities
the ISP serves.
• NAP is a room full of routers, at least one per backbone.
• A LAN in the room connects all the routers, so packets can be forwarded from any
backbone to any other backbone.
 Connection-Oriented Networks
• Why do the telephone companies like it then?
• There are two reasons
• 1. Quality of service.
• 2. Billing.
 X.25
• X.25 which was the first public data network.
• Data packets were very simple, consisting of a 3-byte header and up to 128 bytes
of data.
• The header consisted of a
• 12-bit connection number
• Packet sequence number
• Acknowledgement number
 Frame Relay
• It is connection-oriented, packets were delivered in order (if they were delivered
at all).
• The properties of
• in-order delivery
• no error control
• no flow control
• Its most important application is interconnecting LANs at multiple company
offices.
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode(ATM)
• ATM was going to solve all the world's networking and telecommunications problems by
merging voice, data, cable television.
• Connection establish.
• Connection Identifier
• Virtual Circuit
• PVC
• Packet should be in order
• Routing table
• ATDM(Asynchronous Time Division Multiplexing)
• 155Mbps & 622 Mbps
• Transmission medium is independent.
ATM Virtual Circuits
 An ATM cell
• The basic idea behind ATM is to transmit all information in small, fixed-size
packets called cells.

• 5 bytes for header

• 48 bytes for data
The ATM Reference Model

3 layers in this model

1. Physical layer
1. TC sub layer
2. PMD sub layer
2. ATM layer
3. ATM adaptation layer
The ATM layers and sublayers , and their functions