NUTRITION OF

ENTOMAPHAGOUS
INSECTS AND THEIR
HOST
NELSON E. MENDOZA
MS Crop Protection
INTRODUCTION

Understanding the feeding habits and

nutritional requirements of adult
entomophagous insects has led to the use
of supplemental foods for enhancing the
efficacy of these beneficial insects in the
field.
GENERAL INSECT
NUTRITION
A. Nitrogen Sources
Nitrogen sources could be provided as proteins,
peptides, or free amino acids.
Parasitoids and predators are carnivorous species
needing a protein-rich diet, with some specific
requirements in aromatic amino acids especially
in parasitoid diptera at the end of their larval
development for cuticle tanning (Bonnot et al.
1976).
B. Lipids
Lipids are mainly considered as a source of
energy. Similarity of lipid composition
between the parasitoid and host in some
species suggests that host lipids may be
absorbed with few modifications, especially
neutral lipids (Delobel and Pageaux, 1981).
B. Lipids
Some polyunsaturated fatty acids are
necessary for development and
reproduction.
Phospholipids are important as key
components in cell membranes and also
play a role as molecular signals.
B. Lipids
Dietary sterols are required by all insects
(House, 1961). Lipids may be supplied as
free fatty acids or triglycerides, but their
incorporation within aqueous base
formulations requires surfactants.
C. Carbohydrates
They are usually considered as a source of
energy, and hence a specific qualitative
supply is not required. Trehalose, the most
common nonreducing disaccharide in
insects, plays an important role in the
general metabolism (Thompson, 2003).
C. Carbohydrates
To maintain the osmotic potential at an
acceptable level, oligosaccharides (e.g.
glucose) could be replaced by
polysaccharides (e.g. glycogen).
Sucrose may act as a feeding stimulant
(Cohen, 2004).
C. Carbohydrates
Trehalose, the most common non-reducing
disaccharide in insects, plays an important
role in metabolism and stress resistance.
It could be used instead of sucrose or
glucose, and also partly replaced
hemolymph in media for Trichogramma.
D. Other needs
1. Inorganic salts
They are generally required for the normal
development of insects, but their level and
the balance between the different cations,
especially K+/Na+ is of prime importance
and varies according to the species.
D. Other needs
2. Vitamins
About 12 vitamins were added in the diets,
mainly hydrosoluble ones including B
vitamins, as well as C vitamin, and 2
liposoluble ones (retinol- A, and
tocopherol-E).
D. Other needs
3. Miscellaneous
Ribonucleic acids (RNA) are sometimes
incorporated in medium/diet, but their
dispensability is questionable. RNA could
increase survival or promote growth.
 NUTRITION AND
FOODS OF ADULT
PARASITOIDS
Plant and Honeydew Feeding
For the reproductive success of many
hymenopterous parasitoids, supplemental feeding
is required. Field observations strongly suggest
that feeding on pollen and nectar—rich sources
of nutrients, particularly sugars and free amino
acids—is critically important for maximal life
span and parasitism.
 NUTRITION AND
FOODS OF ADULT
PARASITOIDS
Host Feeding Versus Nonhost Feeding
Destructive host feeding occurs when tissue
mutilation renders a host unsuitable for
oviposition. Destructive feeding, then, is generally
nonconcurrent.
Concurrent feeders feed and oviposit on the same
host individual.
 NUTRITION AND
FOODS OF ADULT
PARASITOIDS
Host Feeding Versus Nonhost Feeding
Host feeding has been characterized as a dynamic
balance between current and future reproduction .
A host used for feeding represents an investment
toward future reproduction, whereas a host used
for oviposition represents current reproduction.
 NUTRITION AND
FOODS OF ADULT
PARASITOIDS
Feeding and Egg Development
The pattern of feeding behavior by female
parasitoids is affected by the nutritional
requirements for oogenesis and embryogenesis.
Based on egg development and maturation,
parasitoids are frequently distinguished as
proovigenic or synovigenic.
 NUTRITION AND
FOODS OF ADULT
PARASITOIDS
Feeding and Egg Development
In contrast to the development of proovigenic
species, the developing larvae of synovigenic
parasitoids have a fixed quantity of nutritional
resources because host feeding and development
are generally absent following parasitism.
IN VITRO REARING
For all entomophagous insects, a main
concern for their use in biological control
is the production of quality organisms at a
reasonable cost. In vitro rearing may be
an effective tool to produce these natural
enemies in the absence of hosts or prey.
The availability of an artificial medium
could be economically desirable by
simplifying the production line.
Natural Prey Natural rearing systems for
predators use the natural or target prey. Natural
rearing systems are essentially tritrophic, that
is, they comprise three trophic levels:
1. the predator
2. the herbivorous prey, and
3. the prey’s food.
ARTIFICIAL DIETS
Researchers have classified artificial diets by the
identification of chemicals within them. These
include:
1. holidic diets, in which all constituents are known
in chemical (molecular) structure;
2. meridic diets, in which most of the constituents
are known chemically; and
3. oligidic diets, in which a few of the constituents
are known chemically (Vanderzant, 1974).
ARTIFICIAL DIETS
1. Artificial diets containing arthropod components.
Artificial diets that contain insect matter (tissues,
protein, cells, etc.) are useful when predators need
chemical cues and other feeding stimulants found in
live prey (De Clercq, 2004).
ARTIFICIAL DIETS
2. Artificial diets without arthropod components.
Research has shown very limited success in rearing
predators on artificial diets devoid of any arthropod
components.
FACTITIOUS PREY
Costs of production may be reduced when
predatory insects can be produced on unnatural or
factitious prey that is easier and less expensive to
rear than the natural prey.
FACTITIOUS PREY

Factitious prey are comprised of organisms that

are not normally attacked by the predator, mostly
because they do not occur in its natural habitat,
but do sustain its development in a laboratory
environment (De Clercq, 2008).
FACTITIOUS PREY
Factitious prey/foods are typically insects, mites,
or crustaceans that support the development and
reproduction of predators (although often at
suboptimal levels) in lieu of natural or target prey.
IN VIVO REARING
The effect of host food, whether natural or
artificial, should not be overlooked as it may
influence parasitoid survival and quality
(Thompson and Hagen, 1999).
The first studies with a parasitoid species should
however start with rearing conditions similar to
those observed in nature in order to obtain
information on its basic biological, physiological,
and behavioral characteristics.
The classical method for production of
entomophagous insects is the natural tritrophic
system, which includes:
1. plant (or other natural food)
2. host insect, and
3. parasitoid.