Glycosides

 Glycosides are compounds which upon

hydrolysis yield sugar and non-sugar(s)
moieties or aglycon (genin). The therapeutic
activity of a glycoside is due to aglycon part.
 The usual linkage between sugar and non-

sugar is an oxygen linkage between reducing

group of sugar and alcoholic or phenolic
hydroxyl group of the aglycon. Chemically
the glycosides are regarded as sugar ethers.
 Classification of glycosides:
 They are classified on the basis of;
 1. Glycon or Sugar part
 2. Aglycon or non-sugar part
 3. The linkage between glycon & aglycon
1. On the basis of glycon:

 Glycosides are classified on the basis of their

sugars as well. They are named on the sugar
present in them.
 Example:
  Glucoside, in which glucose is present.
  Ramnoside, in which ramnose is present.
2. On the basis of aglycon:

 Glycosides are classified on the basis of their

non-sugar part. They are names on the
specific aglycon present in them.
 Example:
  Cyanophore glycosides, in which cyanides

are present.
  Anthraquinone glycosides, in which

anthracine ring derivative aglycons are

present.
 3. On the bases of linkage:
 The glycosides are classified on the bases of the
linkage present between them. The usual linkages are;
  If the linkage in glycoside is through oxygen such
glycosides are called O-glycosides.
  If the linkage is through sulphur then they are called
S-glycosides.
  If the linkage is through Nitrogen then they are
called N-glycosides.
  If the linkage is through Carbon then they are called
C-glycosides.
 Role of glycon: When these glycosides are
administered into the body the sugar carry
the aglycon to the site of a particular organ or
a tissue where the physiological or
pharmacological action is required so, sugar
act as a transporter.
 Classification of Glycosides
 They are classified on the nature of chemical nature of aglycon;
 1. Cardioactive glycosides e.g. Digitalis, Strophanthus, White
squill
 2. Anthraquinone glycosides e.g. Senna, Aloe, Rhubarb,
Cascara, Cochineal
 3. Saponins glycosides e.g. Dioscorea, Sarsaparilla, Glycyrrhiza
 4. Cyanophore glycosides e.g. Wild cherry
 5. Isothiocyanate glycosides e.g. Black musterd
 6. Lactone glycosides e.g. Cantharides
 7. Aldehyde glycosides e.g. Vanilla
 8. Miscellaneous isoprenoid glycosides e.g. Gentian, Quassia
 1. Cardioactive Glycosides:
 They are also known as cardio tonics and cardiac glycosides.
These are therapeutically used to strengthen a weaker heart
thus allow it to function more efficiently when these are
administered into the body they increase the force of systolic
contraction and strengthening the length of systole thus
giving the heart more time to rest between contraction.
 Role of sugar: the sugars render the compound more soluble
and increases the power of fixation of the glycosides to heart
muscles. The aglycon is of steroidal structure. It is either
bufanolide (white squill) or cardinolide (digitalis &
strophanthus).
Isolation and extraction
 Stas-Otto Method
 The drug containing glycoside is finely powdered
 and the powder is extracted by continuous hot

percolation using soxhlet apparatus with alcohol

as solvent.
 During this process, various enzymes present in

plant parts are also deactivated due to heating.

The thermolabile glycosides, however, should be
extracted at temperature preferably
 below 45°C. The extract is treated with lead

acetate to precipitate tannins and thus eliminate

nonglycosidal impurities.
 The excess of lead acetate is precipitated as lead
sulphide by passing hydrogen sulphide gas through
solution. The extract is filtered, concentrated to get
crude glycosides. From the crude extract, the glycosides
are obtained in pure form by making use of processes
like fractional solubility, fractional crystallization and
chromatographic techniques such as preparative thin
layer and column chromatography.
 The characterization of isolated purified compounds is
 done by IR, UV, visible, NMR and mass spectrometry and
 elemental analysis.
 (i) Digitalis
 Botanical origin: Digitalis lanata, Digitalis

purpurea
 Common Name: Foxglove
 Family: Previously Scrophulariaceae, now,

according to new APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny

Group) placed in Plantaginaceae.
 Part used: Dried leaves
 Characters Digitalis Purpurea Digitalis
lanata
 Leaf shape Ovate or oblong Linear,
lanceolate
 Margin Dentated margin Straight or entire
margin
 Petiole Winged Sessile (No stalk)
 Size 35cm length
 11cm width 30cm length
 4cm width
 Diagram
 Chemical Constituents:
 There are four types of derivatives which are

found in digitalis species. They are

mentioned below;
 Derivatives of Digitoxigenin
 Derivatives of Gitoxigenin
 Derivatives of Gitaloxigenin
 Derivatives of Digoxigenin
 There are two type of sugars is present with
aglycon. Digitoxose (Methyl aldopentose) and
glucose.
  Derivatives of Digitoxigenin:
 Digitalis purpurea: Digitoxin (3 digitoxose)

and glucodigitoxin (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose)

is present.
 Digitalis lanata: Digitoxin, acetyl digitoxin (3

digitoxose, 1 COCH3), lanatoside A (3

digitoxose, 1 glucose, 1, 1 COCH3) is
present.
  Derivatives of Gitoxigenin:
 A Hydroxyl group (-OH) is present on carbon

16 in cardinolide structure.
 Digitalis purpurea: Gitoxin (3 digitoxose) is

present.
 Digitalis lanata: Lanatoside B (3 digitoxose, 1

glucose, 1, 1 COCH3) is present.

 Derivatives of Gitaloxigenin:
 A “–OCHO” group is present on Carbon 16 in

cardinolide structure.
 Digitalis purpurea: Gitaloxin (3 digitoxose) is

present.
 Digitalis lanata: Lanatoside E (3 digitoxose, 1

glucose, 1, 1 COCH3) is present.

  Derivatives of digoxigenin:
 Its derivatives are only present in Digitalis lanata.
A Hydroxyl group (-OH) is present on carbon 12
of cardinolide structure.
 - Digoxin (3 digitoxose)
 - Acetyl digoxin (3 digitoxose, 1 COCH3 )
 - Lanatoside C (3 digitoxose, 1 glucose, 1 COCH3)
 - Deslanoside or GlucoDigoxin (3 digitoxose, 1
glucose)
 Only digitoxin, digoxin and deslanoside is
used therapeutically the rest are poorly
absorbed from GIT so they are useless.
 Digitoxin: It is the principal constituent of Digitalis
purpurea. 1mg of digitoxin is therapeutically
equivalent to 1g of digitalis leaves. It is completely
absorbed from GIT therefore, an equivalent oral or IV
administration produce essentially same therapeutic
effect and the drug has almost similar onset of
action by either root. Onset of action occur at half to
2 hours. Following IV administration with maximum
effect occurring at 8 to 9 hours later. Following oral
administration onset occur at 2 to 4 hours with
maximum effect occurring at 12 to 24 hours later.
 Digoxin: It has more rapid onset of action compare to
the digitoxin. Following IV injection onset occur at 5
to 30 minutes at somewhat longer. Following oral
administration maximum effect occurring at 2 to 5
hours depending upon the route through drug is
administered.

  Deslanoside: In deslanoside onset occur at 10 to 30

minutes with maximum effects occurring at
 1 to 2 hours later. It is therapeutically used in the left
side heart failure.
 Medicinal uses:
 All digitalis glycosides possess some qualitative

effect or action on heart, peripheral vascular

system, CNS and GIT, but they vary in their
potency, onset of action, rate of absorption and
speed of elimination. Excessive doses of
glycosides produce nausea, vomiting,
drowsiness, marked confusion, respiratory
depression, visual disturbances and
disturbances in cardiac rhythm i.e. premature
contraction of ventricles.
 (ii) Strophanthus
 Botanical origin: Strophanthus kombe,

Strophanthus hispidus
 Family: Apocynaceae
 Part used: Dried ripened seeds, seeds are

coved with silky hairs of same color.

 Habit: Plants are woody Perennial climbers.
 Pharmacognostic features:
 Plant is bitter in taste and have unpleasant

odor. Strophanthus kombe has lanceolate

shape leafs. While Strophanthus hispidus has
spindle shape leafs.
 Constituents:
 It contains Stophanthin, 30% fixed oils, two nitrogenous
bases (choline, trigonelline), Resin and mucilage.
Sthrophanthin is present in the endosperm tissue of the
seeds. When the section of the seed is treated with 1 drop of
60% sulphuric acid the cell of endosperm containing
strophanthin will assume bright color.
 Strophanthus gratus, Sthrophathus emini, Strophanthus
nicholsoni, Strphanthus courmontii, all are used as adulterant
to standard drugs. They give Red, red to violet, red and
brownish color respectively when treated with 60% sulphuric
acid.
 Strphanthin on hydrolysis broken down into strophanthidin
and β-D glucose, α-D glucose, Cymarose.
 Medicinal Uses:
 - It is used as cardio tonic.
 - It is used as diuretic.
(iii) White squill

 Botanical origin: Urginea maritima OR Drimia

maritima
 Family: Previously Liliaceae, now, according to

new APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group)

placed in Asparagaceae.
 Part used: Dried fleshy scales of the bulb.
 Habit: Plants are Perennial herbs.
 Pharmacognostic features:
 It is of about 15 to 30 cm diameter. Its taste

is bitter and it has slight odor. It has pear

shape bulb. The stem is reduced and it is of
disc shape.
 Constituents:
 It contain Scillaren which upon hydrolysis

gives Scillarenin or Scillaridin and sugar 1

Rhamnose and 1 glucose. It also contain
glucoscillaren.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as expectorant because the

constituents are poorly absorbed by GIT.

 - It is used as diuretic.
 - It is used as emetic.
 - It is used as Cardio tonic.
2. Anthraquinone glycosides:

 glycosides are stimulant purgatives and cathartics

and they exert their action by increasing the tone
of smooth muscles in the wall of large intestine.
 There are two chemical tests for Anthraquinone
glycosides, written as fallows;
 - The test is applied to powdered form or section
of the crude drug. Take powdered drug, to the
powder add alkali and observe. Red color is
produced. In cascara bark the medullary rays
assumes the red color so it indicates that the
anthraquinone glycosides are located in it.
 (i) Aloe
 Botanical origin: Aloe vera, Aloe ferox, Aloe

perryi
 Family: Previously Liliaceae, now, according to

new APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny Group)

placed in Asphodelaceae.
 Part used: Dried juice of leaves.
 Pharmacognostic features:
 The leaves are thick and fleshy and they are
strongly cutecularaized and they are prickly at
the margin. The juice obtained is either brown or
brownish black in color with a bitter taste and
characteristic odor.
 Constituents:
 It contain barbaloin (aloe emodin anthrone +
glucose), isobarbaloin, β-barbaloin,
chrysophenic acid, volatile oils and resinous
matter.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as laxative and purgative.
 - It is an ingredient of Benzoin tincture & sun

creams.
 - Fresh mucilage juice of leaf is used in skin

burn & eczema.

 - It used as cosmetic, emollient, wound

healer, moisturizer & shampoos.

 - As a fork medicine it is used in the

treatment of rheumatism.
 (ii) Rhubarb
 Botanical origin: Rheum officinale, Rheum

emodi, Rheum palmatum

 Family: Polygonaceae
 Part used: Dried rhizomes of roots.
 Pharmacognostic features:
 The plants grows at high altitude at 900 ft. or 3000

meter. The drug has firm texture known shrunken

appearance. It is bright yellow in color it is aromatic
due to presence of volatile oils and taste is bitter and
astringent.
 Constituents:
 It contain mainly Rhein anthrone C-10 glucoside

(Rhein anthrone + glucose). Among the tannins it

contains Rheotannic acid, Catechin, Gallic acid,
Glucogallin. It also contain 40% rosettes of Calcium
oxalate crystals.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as laxative.
 - It is used as purgative.

 Due to its astringent action on GIT lining, it is

less frequently used to relieve constipation.
 (iii) Senna
 Botanical origin: Cassia angustifolia, Cassia

acutifolia
 Family: Previously Leguminosae, now,

according to new APG (Angiosperm Phylogeny

Group) placed in Feabaceae.
 Part used: Dried leaflets
 Habit: Perennial shrub
 Pharmacognostic features:
 The leaflets are paripinnate in nature (even

no. of leaves). The height of the shrub is

about 1 to 1.5 meter.
 Characters Cassia acutifolia Cassia
angustifolia
 Shape of leaves Narrow leaves with

Asymmetric base Broader with less

asymmetric base
 Color of leaves Grayish green Yellowish
green
 Trichomes Epidermal trichomes are more
numerous. The average distance between
them is 3 epidermal cells. Epidermal
trichomes are less numerous. The average
distance between them is 6 epidermal cells.
 Test:
 Ether extract of the hydrolyzed acid solution

of drug gives with Methanolic magnesium

acetate solution. Pink color day light.
 In Filtered UV light Pale brownish color.

Orange color day light.

 In Filtered UV light yellowish green color.
 Constituents:
 It contains dimeric glycosides. It mainly contain
Sennoside A and B (rhein dianthrone + glucose) and
Sennocide C & D (rhein anthrone + aloe amodin +
glucose).
 Sennosides A & B are very effective in contrast to
Sennoside C & D. They are insoluble in water
therefore they are converted into their Calcium
salts. Sennoside A & B are isomers. A is dextro
isomer while B is meso isomer. Similarly, Sennoside
C & D are isomers. C is dextro isomer while D is
meso isomer.
Medicinal uses:

 1. It is used as purgative.
 2. It is used as laxative.
 3. It is used as stimulant.
 4. Commercially is it is also used in the

preparation of soaps and mouth washes.

 5. Its elixirs and tablets are available, it is

basically used to treat habitual constipation.

 (iv) Cascara
 Botanical origin: Cascara sagrada or Rhamnus

purshiana
 Family: Rhamnaceae
 Part used: Dried bark
 Habit: Evergreen Tree
 Pharmacognostic features:
 It is a tree of about 15m height. Bark is yellow

in color originally, after drying it turns into

purplish yellow. Odor is slight but
characteristic and taste is bitter.
 Constituents:
 Cascara contain two Aloins (barbaloin &
chrysaloin) and are bitter in taste. Primary
glycosides cascarosides A and B (related to
barbaloin) and cascarosides C and D (related
to chrysaloin). Both O and C glycosidic linkage
is present. Similarly aloe emodin (1, 8 –
dihydroxy-3-hydroxy methyl anthraquinone)
and emodin (1, 3, 8-trihydroxy-6-methyl
anthraquinone) also present.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used for the correction of habitual

constipation.
 (v) Cochineal
 Zoological origin:
  Old name: Coccus cacti
  New name: Dactylopius coccus

 Family: Coccidae (old), Dactylopiidae (new)

 Part used: Dried female insect containing eggs and

larvae.
 Host of Insect: Nopal plant (Opuntia coccinellifera)

belongs to family, Cactaceae.

 Collection: These insects are collected from
nopal plant. They are killed by the steam or hot
water treatment or may be killed by fumes of
burning sulpher. Finally they are dried in an oven
when they lose about 30% of original weight.
 Constituents:
 Red berried of the Nopal plant are consumed by
the insects therefore the color is formed after
the processing inside the abdomen of the
insects. They are the source of carmine red or
carminic acid.
 Uses:
 - It is used as coloring dye for cosmetics and

fabrics.
 - It is used in oil paints and water colors.
 - In US it is used in dairy products and soft

drinks (beverages)
 - In pharmacy it is used to color the pills and

ointments. Contrary to other dyes it is not

toxic or
 carcinogenic.
 3. Saponins Glycosides:
 The word is originated from Latin word ‘’Sapo’’ means ‘Soap.’
Plant material containing saponin glycosides have long been
used in various parts of the world for their detergent
properties.
 Example:
 1. Roots of Saponaria officinalis contain saponin glycosides
and it is found in Europe.
 2. Bark of Quillaia saponaria contain saponin glycosides, and it
is found in South America.

 The aglycone of the saponin glycosides are called ‘Sapogenin.’

On the basis of chemical nature of aglycone that is sapogenin,
two types of saponins have been classified;
  Steroidal saponin (e.g.
Dioscorea,Sarsaparilla)
Characteristics:

 1. They form colloidal solution solution in water

which foam upon shaking.
 2. They are mostly bitter in taste but glycyrrhiza is
sweet.
 3. The drugs are sternutatory (sneez causing) in
action.
 4. Some of the saponin glycosides are toxic in nature.
For example Sapindus trifoliatus, a hepatotoxic agent
and it also destroy RBC’s by hemolysis.
 5. They are toxic to especially cold blooded animals.
Many have been used as fish poisons.
(i) Glycyrrhiza

 Botanical origin: Glycyrrhiza glabra

 Family: Feabaceae
 Part used: Dried roots and rhizomes
 Habit: Perennial Herb
 Pharmacognostic features:
 It is a yellow color plant. The plant have imparipinnate
leaves. It has characteristic fracture. The fracture is fibrous
in the bark and splintery in wood region. The odor is slight
but characteristic and taste is sweet.
 Constituents:
 The major constituent is Glycyrrhizic acid. It is composed
of Glycyrrhetic acid (aglycone) and 2 molecules of
glucuronic acid (glycone).
 Among the other constituents it contain Liquiritin and
isoliquiritin. Tthey are flavonoid glycosides and have
antimicrobial & anti-ulcerogenic activity. It also contain
glucose, manitol and 20% starch.
Medicinal uses:
 - It is used for peptic ulcer treatment.
 - It is used as expectorant.
 - It is used as laxative.
 - It is used as demulcent.
 - It is used as flavoring agent. Commercially, it is
added into chewing gums, candies and tobacco
mixtures.
 - It is used to mask the bitter taste of the drug
e.g. aloe, ammonium chloride and quinine etc.
 - It is used against the inflammation of liver,
kidney & lung as folk medicine.
(ii) Sarsaparilla

 Botanical origin: Smilax febrifuga, Smilax

regelii
 Family: Smilacaceae
 Part used: Dried roots
 Habit: Perennial woody climbers
 Constituents:
 It contains some volatile oils and resins. The

main constituent is Sarsaponin. It is

composed of sarsapogenin, three molecule of
glucose and one molecules of rhamnose.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used to treat chronic skin diseases.
 - It is used to treat rheumatism.
 Structure:
 Sarsaponin Sarsapogenin + 3
Glucose + 1 Rhamnose
 4. Cyanophore Glycosides:
 They are also known as cyanogenic glycosides or
cyanogenetic glycosides.
 Hydrolysis of Amygdalin:
 Botanical origin: Prunus amygdalus
 Sweet almond and bitter almond, both are
chemical races of same species.
 Bitter almond contain amygdalin almond with
enzyme emulsin. The emulsin enzyme is made up
of two components i.e. prunase and amygdalase.
 Steps:
 Hydrolysis of amygdalin includes the following steps;
 1. In the first step hydrolysis of amygdalin takes place in
the presence of enzyme amygdalase, and prunasin
(mendilonitril glucoside) and glucose molecule is obtained.

 2. The prunasin produced again undergo hydrolysis in the

presence of enzyme prunase, and a glucose molecule and
mendilonitrile cyanohydrin is obtained.

 3. This mendilonitrile cyanohydrin, dissociate into

benzaldehyde and hydrocyanic acid.
 Wild cherry
 Botanical origin: Prunus serotina
 Family: Rosaceae
 Part used: Dried stem bark
 Habit: Tree
 Habitat:It is found in eastern United States

and Canada.
 Constituents:
 It contain prunasin, produced by partial
hydrolysis of amygdalin. It contain tannins
(trimethyl gallic acid), benzoic acid, traces of
volatile oils and enzymes. It also contain rosettes
and prism aggregates of of Ca-oxalate crystals.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It possess astringent, sedative, and antitussive
properties.
 - It is used as flavoring agent in cough syrups.
 5. Isothiocyanate Glycosides:
 The main drug of this glycoside class is black mustard.
 (i) Black Mustard

 Botanical origin: Brassica nigra

 Family: Brassicaceae
 Part used: Dried ripened seeds
 Habit: Biennial or annual herb
 Habitat: It is found in India, Pakistan, America, Russia
and Europe.
 Constituents:
 It mainly contain Sinigrin (potassium myronate). It

is an S-glycoside. Among the other constituents it

contain 30% proteins and 30% to 35% fixed oils.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as counter irritant.
 - It is used as pustulant.
 - It is used as vesicant.
 - It is used as rubifacient.
 - Externally it is used in the treatment of

rheumatism and arthritis.

6. Lactone Glycosides:

 The main crude drug of this class is

Cantharides.
 (i) Cantharides

 Zoological origin:
 i. Old name: Cantharis vesicatoria
 ii. New name: Lytta vesicatoria

 Family: Meloidae
 Part used: Dried insects
 Constituents:
 The main constituent is Cantharidin. Among

the others are uric acid, formic acid, acetic

acid, and 12% fats.
 Structure & Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as counter irritant.
 - It is used as pustulant.
 - It is used as vesicant.
 - It is used as rubifacient.
 7. Aldehyde Glycosides:
 The main crude drug of this class is Vanilla.
 (i) Vanilla

 Botanical origin: Vanilla planifolia, Vanilla

tahitensis
 Family: Orchidaceae
 Part used: Cured fully grown but unripe fruit
 Curing of vanilla:
 Vanilla planifolia is also calles Maxican vanilla and,
Vanilla tahitensis is also known as Tahiti vanilla. The
fruits (pods, beans) are collected when ripened to
yellow color and are cured by dipping them in warm
water and repeatedly sweating them between wooden
blanket in the sun during the day and packing in wool
covered boxes at night during this period vanillin is
enzymatically produced and may accumulate as white
crystals on surface of fruit. The fruit also turn brown
and lose 70% to 80% of their original weight and take
on the characteristic aromatic odor.
 Constituents:
 During the curing process these 2 glycosides
are acted upon by and oxidizing and
hydrolyzing enzyme which occurs in the plant.
 Structure & uses:
 - It used as flavoring agent in beverages both
alcoholic and non-alcoholic.
 - It is used in frozen dairy products e.g.
pudding, curd or ice-cream.

 8. Miscellaneous Isoprenoid Glycosides:
 Gentian and Quassia are classified as miscellaneous

isoprenoid glycosides.
 (i) Quassia

 Botanical origin:
 
  Quassia amara

 Family: Simaroubaceae
 Part used: Dried wood
 Collection:
 The bark is obtained from main trunk and other
branches in autumn. After cutting the tree the
bark is removed and the wood or trunk and large
branches is cut into small chips, rasping or logs.
 Drying:
 Wood is immediately dried in the form of cubes
in an oven to prevent fungal growth, which
readily grows on fresh wood. Initially the color of
bark is white but it turns yellow on drying.
 Constituents:
 The wood is odorless with bitter taste. The

fracture is short and even.

 The active components of the quassia wood

is bitter quassinoids, like quassins,

neoquassin, isoquassin (picrasmin) and 18
hydroxy quassin.
 Among the other constituents in contain

volatile oil, pectin, and various other salts.

 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as antispasmodic in fever.
 - It is used as bitter tonic and stomachic.
 - It is used as insecticide and anti-amoebic.
 - Rectally, it is used to treat nematode infestation.
 - It is used as anthelmintic to kill thread worm in
body.
 - Topically, it is used to treat pediculosis (infection
of lice on scalp).
 - Small doses of quassia increases the appetite,
therefore used in anorexia, and for indigestion.
 Structure:
 The structure of quassin and neoquassin is

given below;
 (ii) Gentian
 Botanical origin: Gentiana lutea
 Family: Gentianaceae
 Part used: Dried roots and rhizomes
 Habit: Perennial Herb
 Drying: The drug is dried in two ways;
  The drug is immediately dried by using

sunlight or artificial heat and these drugs

contain bitter principles.
  The roots are sliced longitudinally. Slow

drying is employed to avoid deterioration. The

drug is firstly dried in open air then in shade
and during this process the drug is allowed to
ferment, it loses its bitter principle and it
possess aromatic qualities which is desirable for
alcoholic drinks.
 Constituents:
 It contain bitter glycosides (amarogentin, gentiopicrin,
sweitiamarin).
 Among the other constituents it contain alkaloids
0.03% (gentianine and gentialutine), sugars
(gentianose, gentiobiose and sucrose), volatile oil and
triterpenes.
 Medicinal uses:
 - It is used as antiseptic.
 - It is used as stomachic.
 - It is used as anthelmintic.
 - It used as anti-inflammatory.
 It is used as febrifuge (antipyretic).
 - It is used as appetizer in anorexia.
 - It is used as bitter tonic in anorexia and dyspepsia.
 - It is used as flavoring agent in alcoholic beverages.
 - Internally, it is used to treat gastric infections and
indigestion.
 - It is used as cholagogue (agents that promote the
discharge of bile from the system).
 - It is used as emmenagogue (agents which stimulate
blood flow in pelvic and uterus area)
 (iii) Dioscorea
 Botanical origin: Dioscorea composita,

Dioscorea bulbifera
 Family: Dioscoreaceae
 Part used: Dried roots and rhizomes
 Constituents:
 It contains starch. The main constituent is Dioscin, on
hydrolysis it yield one molecule of glucose and 2
molecules of rhamnose.
 Medicinal uses:
 - The aglycon is used as a precursor for the synthesis
of cortisones, sex hormones and other steroidal
drugs.
 - It is used as oral contraceptive. Aglycon possess
antifertility process and it is mainly used in the health
and family planning programs in developed
countries.
 Structure:
 Dioscin Diosgenin + 1
Glucose + 2 Rhamnose