FUNCTIONS OF THE PRODUCTS OF REACTIONS OF MONOSACCHARIDES

Classification

Glycosides can be classified by the glycone, by the type of glycosidic bond, and by the aglycone.

By glycone/presence of sugar

If the glycone group of a glycoside is glucose, then the molecule is a glucoside; if it is fructose, then the molecule is
a fructoside; if it is glucuronic acid, then the molecule is a glucuronide; etc. In the body, toxic substances are often
bonded to glucuronic acid to increase their water solubility; the resulting glucuronides are then excreted.

By type of glycosidic bond

Depending on whether the glycosidic bond lies "below" or "above" the plane of the cyclic sugar molecule,
glycosides are classified as α-glycosides or β-glycosides. Some enzymes such as α-amylase can only hydrolyze α-
linkages; others, such as emulsin, can only affect β-linkages.

There are four type of linkages present between glycone and aglycone:

C-linkage/glycosidic bond, "nonhydrolysable by acids or enzymes"

O-linkage/glycosidic bond

N-linkage/glycosidic bond

S-linkage/glycosidic bond

By Aglycone

Glycosides are also classified according to the chemical nature of the aglycone. For purposes of biochemistry and
pharmacology, this is the most useful classification.

Alcoholic glycosides

An example of an alcoholic glycoside is salicin, which is found in the genus Salix. Salicin is converted in the body
into salicylic acid, which is closely related to aspirin and has analgesic, antipyretic, and antiinflammatory effects.

Anthraquinone glycosides

These glycosides contain an aglycone group that is a derivative of anthraquinone. They have a laxative effect. They
are mainly found in dicot plants except the Liliaceae family which are monocots. They are present in senna,
rhubarb and Aloe species. Antron and anthranol are reduced forms of anthraquinone.
Coumarin glycosides

Here, the aglycone is coumarin or a derivative. An example is apterin which is reported to dilate the coronary
arteries as well as block calcium channels. Other coumarin glycosides are obtained from dried leaves of Psoralea
corylifolia.

Chromone glycosides

In this case, the aglycone is called benzo-gamma-pyrone.

Cyanogenic glycoside

Amygdalin

In this case, the aglycone contains a cyanohydrin group. Plants that make cyanogenic glycosides store them in the
vacuole, but, if the plant is attacked, they are released and become activated by enzymes in the cytoplasm. These
remove the sugar part of the molecule, allowing the cyanohydrin structure to collapse and release toxic hydrogen
cyanide. Storing them in inactive forms in the vacuole prevents them from damaging the plant under normal
conditions.

Along with playing a role in deterring herbivores, in some plants they control germination, bud formation, carbon
and nitrogen transport, and possibly act as antioxidants.[6] The production of cyanogenic glycosides is an
evolutionarily conserved function, appearing in species as old as ferns and as recent as angiosperms. These
compounds are made by around 3,000 species; in screens they are found in about 11% of cultivated plants but only
5% of plants overall—humans seem to have selected for them.

Examples include amygdalin and prunasin which are made by the bitter almond tree; other species that produce
cyanogenic glycosides are sorghum (from which dhurrin, the first cyanogenic glycoside to be identified, was first
isolated), barley, flax, white clover, and cassava, which produces linamarin and lotaustralin. Amygdalin and a
synthetic derivative, laetrile, were investigated as potential drugs to treat cancer and were heavily promoted as
alternative medicine; they are ineffective and dangerous.

Some butterfly species, such as Dryas iulia and Parnassius smintheus, have evolved to use the cyanogenic
glycosides found in their host plants as a form of protection against predators through their unpalatability.

Flavonoid glycosides

Here, the aglycone is a flavonoid. Examples of this large group of glycosides include:

Hesperidin (aglycone: Hesperetin, glycone: Rutinose)

Naringin (aglycone: Naringenin, glycone: Rutinose)

Rutin (aglycone: Quercetin, glycone: Rutinose)

Quercitrin (aglycone: Quercetin, glycone: Rhamnose)

Among the important effects of flavonoids are their antioxidant effect. They are also known to decrease capillary
fragility.

Phenolic glycosides

Here, the aglycone is a simple phenolic structure. An example is arbutin found in the Common Bearberry
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. It has a urinary antiseptic effect.

Saponins

These compounds give a permanent froth when shaken with water. They also cause hemolysis of red blood cells.
Saponin glycosides are found in liquorice. Their medicinal value is due to their expectorant, and corticoid and anti-
inflammatory effects. Steroid saponins, for example, in Dioscorea wild yam the sapogenin diosgenin—in form of its
glycoside dioscin—is an important starting material for production of semi-synthetic glucocorticoids and other
steroid hormones such as progesterone. The ginsenosides are triterpene glycosides and Ginseng saponins from
Panax Ginseng C. A. Meyer, (Chinese ginseng) and Panax quinquefolius (American Ginseng). In general, the use of
the term saponin in organic chemistry is discouraged, because many plant constituents can produce foam, and
many triterpene-glycosides are amphipolar under certain conditions, acting as a surfactant. More modern uses of
saponins in biotechnology are as adjuvants in vaccines: Quil A and its derivative QS-21, isolated from the bark of
Quillaja saponaria Molina, to stimulate both the Th1 immune response and the production of cytotoxic T-
lymphocytes (CTLs) against exogenous antigens make them ideal for use in subunit vaccines and vaccines directed
against intracellular pathogens as well as for therapeutic cancer vaccines but with the aforementioned side-effect
of hemolysis.

Steroidal glycosides or cardiac glycosides

Here the aglycone part is a steroidal nucleus. These glycosides are found in the plant genera Digitalis, Scilla, and
Strophanthus. They are used in the treatment of heart diseases, e.g., congestive heart failure (historically as now
recognised does not improve survivability; other agents are now preferred[citation needed]) and arrhythmia.

Steviol glycosides

These sweet glycosides found in the stevia plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni have 40-300 times the sweetness of
sucrose. The two primary glycosides, stevioside and rebaudioside A, are used as natural sweeteners in many
countries. These glycosides have steviol as the aglycone part. Glucose or rhamnose-glucose combinations are
bound to the ends of the aglycone to form the different compounds.

Iridoid glycosides

These contain an iridoid group; e.g. aucubin, Geniposidic acid, theviridoside, Loganin, Catalpol.

Thioglycosides

As the name implies (q.v. thio-), these compounds contain sulfur. Examples include sinigrin, found in black
mustard, and sinalbin, found in white mustard.
EFFECTS OF ALDOSE IN THE BODY

Polyphenols in Vision and Eye Health

K. Srinivasan, in Handbook of Nutrition, Diet and the Eye, 2014

Aldose Reductase Inhibitory Activity

Aldose reductase, a key enzyme in the polyol pathway, has been identified as the primary factor responsible for
the pathologic alterations by osmotic stress in diabetic cataract. In the diabetic situation, hyperglycemia is also
observed in the aqueous humor. Aldose reductase catalyzes the conversion of glucose to sorbitol. This polyol,
generated at high levels, cannot diffuse out of the lens passively and either accumulates or is converted to
fructose. Therefore, an osmotic gradient is generated, inducing diffusion of water into the lens. The resultant
swelling and electrolyte imbalance lead to cataract formation.28 Several flavonoids are reported to inhibit the
enzyme aldose reductase. Quercetin is the most promising aldose reductase inhibitor and is used as a positive
control in many studies.

What is dextrose?

Dextrose is the name of a simple sugar that is made from corn and is chemically identical to glucose, or blood
sugar. Dextrose is often used in baking products as a sweetener, and can be commonly found in items such as
processed foods and corn syrup.

Dextrose also has medical purposes. It is dissolved in solutions that are given intravenously, which can be
combined with other drugs, or used to increase a person’s blood sugar.Because dextrose is a “simple” sugar, the
body can quickly use it for energy.Simple sugars can raise blood sugar levels very quickly, and they often lack
nutritional value. Examples of other simple sugars include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Products that are
typically made of simple sugars include refined sugar, white pasta, and honey.

What are common dextrose preparations?

Dextrose is used to make several intravenous (IV) preparations or mixtures, which are available only at a hospital
or medical facility.Dextrose is also available as an oral gel or in oral tablet form over the counter from
pharmacies.Each dextrose concentration has its own unique uses. Higher concentrations are typically used as
“rescue” doses when someone has a very low blood sugar reading.

How is dextrose used?

Dextrose is used in various concentrations for different purposes. For example, a doctor may prescribe dextrose in
an IV solution when someone is dehydrated and has low blood sugar. Dextrose IV solutions can also be combined
with many drugs, for IV administration.

Dextrose is a carbohydrate, which is one part of nutrition in a normal diet. Solutions containing dextrose provide
calories and may be given intravenously in combination with amino acids and fats. This is called total parenteral
nutrition (TPN) and is used to provide nutrition to those who cannot absorb or get carbohydrates, amino acids, and
fats through their gut.
High-concentration dextrose injections are only given by professionals. These injections are administered to people
whose blood sugar may be very low and who cannot swallow dextrose tablets, foods, or drinks.

If a person’s potassium levels are too high (hyperkalemia), sometimes doctors also give dextrose injections of 50
percent, followed by insulin intravenously. This may be done in the hospital setting. When the cells take in the
extra glucose, they also take in potassium. This helps to lower a person’s blood potassium levels. The dextrose is
given to prevent the person from being hypoglycemic. The insulin is treating the elevated potassium.

People with diabetes or hypoglycemia (chronically low blood sugar) may carry dextrose gel or tablets in case their
blood sugar gets too low. The gel or tablets dissolve in a person’s mouth and quickly boost blood sugar levels. If a
person’s blood sugar is less than 70 mg/dL and they are having low blood sugar symptoms, they may need to take
the dextrose tablets. Examples of low blood sugar symptoms include weakness, confusion, sweating, and too-fast
heart rate.