Factors regulating breathing.

Dynamic lung volumes

Adequacy of pulmonary ventilation depends on how well an individual
sustains high airflow levels rather than air movement in a single breath .
Dynamic ventilation depends on :
Maximum stroke volume of the lungs
Speed of moving a volume of air (RR)
Minute ventilation

It is the volume of air that is inspired or expired in 1 minute .

Minute ventilation is calculated by multiplying TV by number of breaths
taken in 1 minute .
Normal RR averages 12 breaths per minute and TV 0.5L of air per
breath .Hence minute ventilation is 6 L .min .
Short term ventilatory responses to
exercise
GASESOUS EXCHANGE

• It is the process by which oxygen from the

air in the lungs is transferred by diffusion
to the blood flowing through the alveoli
across the capillary membrane.
• Simultaneously, CO2 is transferred from
the blood arriving at the lungs into the air
in the lungs, which is expired out.
• The reverse happens at the active muscles
tissue. Where oxygen is carried by blood
into the tissue and get diffused. At the
same time, CO2 diffuse out of tissue into
blood then flow back through venous
system to heart and back to lungs.
Factors affecting gaseous exchange
Oxygen Transport
System
• It involves diffusion of oxygen
from the alveoli into the blood.
• In venous blood the pO2 is
around 5.3 kPa, whereas the pO2
in alveolar air is 13.3 kPa, so the
oxygen diffuses through the
alveolar capillary membrane into
the blood, where it combine with
hemoglobin to form
oxyhemoglobin.
Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation curve
• Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve lines indicate the
percentage saturation of hemoglobin (solid line)
and myoglobin (dashed line) in relation to O2
pressure.
• The right ordinate shows the quantity of oxygen
carried in each decliner of blood under normal
condition.
• The inset curves in the figure illustrate the effects of
temperature and acidity in altering hemoglobin
affinity for oxygen ( Bohr effect).
• The inset box presents oxyhemoglobin saturation
and arterial bloods oxygen carrying capacity for
different Po2 value with hemoglobin conc of 14g/dl
blood at a pH of 7.40.
• The white horizontal line at the top of the graph
indicates percentage saturation of hemoglobin at
the average sea- level alveolar po2 of 100 mm Hg.
Bohr effect
An increase in the acidity ( H+ & CO2) and temperature causes the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to
shift downward and toward the right.
This effect is important in vigorous exercise because increased metabolic heat and acidity in the active
tissues increases oxygen release.

More oxygen unloads from haemoglobin for use of cellular metabolism.

At the same time , CO2 is transferred in the opposite direction.

Concentration of CO2 in atmospheric air is minimal therefore pCO2 in venous blood arriving from the
right side of the heart from the body tissue is higher than alveoli air.

Therefore, CO2 diffuses through the alveolar membrane ( blood to air in lungs)and is expired.
 Gaseous Exchange at the tissue level.
• Myoglobin is a substance similar to hemoglobin which attracts and binds to molecular oxygen.
• It has a greater affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin and is located within cells and enables oxygen to be
carried across a cell to the mitochondria where oxygen is consumed and energy transfer takes place allowing
the muscle tissue to contract.
• Arriving arterial blood has pO2 of 13.3kPa which Is greater than tissue pO2 since the oxygen is being used up
in the cells during the energy-creating process.
• As myoglobin in the tissue cells has a greater affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin, oxygen diffuse through
capillary and cell wall from the blood into the tissue cells.
 OXYGEN TRANSFER
AT REST
• At a pO2 of 5.5 kPa, which is
normal pO2 in resting tissue
capillaries, hemoglobin is about
70% saturated.
• Approximately 30% of the
oxygen bound to hemoglobin is
released into the blood and can
diffuse into the tissue spaces.
DURING EXERCISE
• The pO2 in tissue spaces maybe
as low as 2.5kPa.
• Therefore only 25% of
hemoglobin remains saturated,
and 75% of the oxygen bound to
hemoglobin is released into the
blood and can diffuse through
the capillary walls into the active
tissue spaces.
 Arteriovenous Oxygen Difference
• The absorption and utilization of oxygen from the blood leads to a
difference in the oxygen content of arterial and venous blood.
• The difference is known as arteriovenous oxygen difference
(A-VO2 diff).
 Arteriovenous oxygen difference

AT REST DURING EXERCISE

• The value A-VO2 diff represents the extent to which • The A-VO2 difference value triplets leaving
oxygen is removed from blood once it passes through only 25% of blood original load is bonded to
body. the hemoglobin as illustrated.
• At rest 75% of blood original oxygen load remains
bonded to the hemoglobin. ( 5mL/100mL
(15mL per 100 mL of blood out of original 20 mL)
• This is called as oxygen reserve, which is available for
exercise when it begins.