Chapter 5

Writing Research Reports and Papers

Parts of Research Report

How to write the skeleton of the components of the research report
How to draft and write research report
How to write research paper

1
Purpose of chapter
 Present guidelines intended to help
researchers plan and write research
reports that are well-organised, readable
and presented in formats consistent with
generally accepted practice.

2
What is thesis
 Thesis can be defined as a report on an original piece of
work. In this latter definition we can deduce three
attributes:
 First, ‘a piece of work’ meaning you will try to establish
something: this is vital because it solidifies objectivity.
 Secondly, ‘original’ this means that your work should
be an independent, genuine and authentic
contribution to the body of knowledge in the concerned
discipline. It should not be copied or lifted from
somebody else’s work without making due
acknowledgement.
 Thirdly ‘report’ the thesis is a consolidated report put
together in a systematic and logical sequence.
3
 Structure of Research Report
 Title page
 Declaration and Certificate
 Table of contents Front
 List of Tables  
matter
 List of Figures
 Nomenclature and List of Abbreviations
 Abstract
 Introduction [10 percent]
 Literature review [10 percent]
 Materials and Methods [10 percent]
 Results and Discussion [50 percent]
 Conclusion and Recommendation [20 percent]
 References
 Appendices

4
1-Title page
 Contains
 Title

 Author’s name and affiliation

 The Year

5
a-Title
 A concise statement of the main topic and should
identify the variables.
 Should be a reflection of the contents of the
document.
 Fully explanatory when standing alone.
 Should not contain redundancies such as ‘a study
of…..or ‘an investigation of……
 Abbreviations should not appear in the title.
 Should contain 12 to 15 words.
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b- Author’s name and affiliation
 Preferred order of names- start with 1st,
middle followed by last name.
 Full names should be used, initials should be
avoided.
 Titles like Dr. should not appear in the names.
 Affiliation should be well illustrated i.e.
 ‘A thesis/ research project submitted to the Department
of ………in the School of …………. in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the award of the degree of …….. of
Arba Minch University.’
 The year should follow at the bottom of the
caption.
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8
2- Declaration and Certificate
Should include both the candidate’s and the
supervisor’s declaration and duly signed.
 Declaration
 This thesis is my original work and has not been
presented for a degree in any other University
…………………. ………………… Signature Date
 Certificate
 This thesis has been submitted for examination
with my approval as University Supervisor
……………… ………………. Signature Date

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3- Abstract
 Typically, the subsections are:
 BACKGROUND (PROBLEM CONTEXT, OBJECTIVE) = 1–2

sentences

 METHODS (METHODOLOGY) = 2–3 sentences

 RESULTS = <10 sentences

 CONCLUSION = 1-2 sentence

10
4- Table of Contents
 Can be produced from word auto-format or in table
 The heading should be in title case and single spaced.
 The chapter titles should be in caps and bold. –
 The subheadings should follow each chapter title and should
be in title case.
 Subheading of rows should be – Chapters & Pages indicated
once at the top of each column e.g.,

CHAPTER 1
PAGE
1.1 Introduction………………………………1
1.2 Statement of the problem………………2
 
Reference
Appendices
11
5. List of Tables  

List of Tables

Description
Table No Page

No
Table 2.1 Summary of important publications on PTC
30
Table 2.2 Summary of important publications on experimental works in
32
column contactors
Table 2.3 Summary of important publications on experimental works in
33
microreactors

12
6. List of Figures
List of Figures

Description
Figure No Page

No
Concentration profiles for very slow reaction regime
Figure 2.1 47
Concentration profiles for slow reaction regime when CAo=0
Figure 2.2-a 48
Concentration profiles for slow reaction regime when CAo≠0
Figure 2.2-b 49
Concentration profiles for fast reaction regime
Figure 2.3 50

13
7. Nomenclature and List of Abbreviations

List of Abbreviations

Al ROH=n-amyl alcohol

Aliquat 336 Tricapryl methyl ammonium chloride

AO Aqueous to organic flow rate ratio

Nomenclature

a Effective interfacial area with film, m2/m3

a’ Effective interfacial area without film, m2/m3

14
8. Introduction

D. Aims and Objectives

E. Significance of study
F. Chapterization of the report
15
9. Literature review
 This should include;
 2.1 Introduction
 2.2 Theoretical review/Conceptual Framework
 Review the empirical and theoretical literature relevant to the
problem being investigated.
 Indicate what has been done by other researchers including the
methodologies used and identify gaps.
 The hypothesized variables should be subheadings of the
literature review to form a framework that would help in analysis.
 Conceptual framework should demonstrate an understanding of
what variable influences what.
 Cite 3-5 references per key section in the text.
 Use standard method of citation. Consistency is important in
citation.
 2.3 Critique of the existing literature relevant to the study.
 2.4 Summary
 2.5 Research gaps and means to solution
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10. Materials and Methods
 For materials
 Specify the apparatuses, including the manufacturers’
names and addresses.
 Identify all chemicals and supplies used

 Describe the salient characteristics of all

experimental subjects and tell exactly how the
subjects were found or chosen, including the eligibility
requirements, the criteria for exclusion, and the nature of
the source population from which they were drawn.
 For methods
 Explain the overall design of your research program
 Fully describe all the operations and procedures in sufficient detail to
allow other workers to repeat them and to reproduce your results
 Cite references for all previously documented methods, including any
statistical methods
 Give complete recipes for any new or modified techniques
 Explain the procedures used to analyze your data
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11. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
 A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with
supporting data in the form of tables and charts together
with a validation of results
 Where possible, use figures and tables to highlight the
project’s major findings. This can enhance the overall
effectiveness and attractiveness of research reports.
 Never position a figure or table before the start of the text
describing it, or without providing any explanatory text.
 Style of presentation – presentation of raw data followed by
discussion
 Table titles should be at the top of the tables.
 Tables copied from elsewhere should have source below them.
 Figure titles should be at the bottom of the figures.

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Tables and Figures…
 Style of presentation – presentation of raw
data followed by discussion
 Table titles should be at the top of the

tables.
 Figure titles should be at the bottom of the

figures.
 Tables and figures copied from
elsewhere should have source below
them.

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20
11.1 RESULTS

21
11.2 DISCUSSION

22
12. Conclusion and Recommendation
1. INTRODUCTION-A brief on the chapter
2. SUMMARY- This is an extended abstract
3. CONCLUSIONS- Must be derived from the
summary
4. RECOMMENDATIONS- Should come from
the conclusions

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13. References
 For books and pamphlets the order may
be as under:
1. Name of author, last name first.
2. Title, underlined to indicate italics.
3. Publisher, Place and date of publication

 Example
 Kothari, C.R., Quantitative Techniques, Vikas
Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1978.
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13. References…….
 For journals, magazines and newspapers the order may
be as under:
1. Name of the author
2. Title of article.
3. Name of journal .
4. The volume and number.
5. The date of the issue.
6. The pagination.
 Example
 Good, R. J., Elbing, E., Generalization of Theory for Estimation of Interfacial
Energies, Ind. Eng. Chem., 62, 3 (1970) 54-78

 One should also remember that they are not the only
acceptable forms. The only thing important is that,
whatever method one selects, it must remain consistent.
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APA Referencing Style
 APA Referencing was developed by the
American Psychological Association is mostly
used by many institutions of higher learning and
Universities.

 General format of the reference list

 The reference list should be listed alphabetically by author and
then by year
 Book titles and journal titles should be in italics (preferably)
 For a book, the edition is only mentioned if it is other than the
first
 The place of publication is the town or city, not the country
 Journal titles should be given in full, not abbreviated
 Be consistent in format, layout and punctuation 26
14. APPENDICES

 questionnaires,

 sample information,

 mathematical derivations and the like ones

 Bulk of data in table form

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15. How to draft and write research report
 Your entire report/paper should point
unavoidably toward its Conclusion

It should be specific and focused: There is a systematic link from

the research title, problem statement, objectives, literature review,
data collection and analysis and the conclusion.
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The language aspect
 Use quantifiable adjectives
 ‘Tall’ should be defined numerically, for example,
‘greater than 2 m’ or ‘greater than 7 km.’
 Avoid vague language (like ‘It seems’) and avoid
first person (‘I believe’, ‘In my opinion’).
 Scientific Use of Tenses
 the present tense indicates general knowledge and
general principles, while the past tense indicates
results of experiments.
 Each Paragraph Makes One Point
 each paragraph should contain one main idea
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The language aspect…
 Inside a Scientific Paragraph
 The Lead Sentence
 The Subsequent Sentences

 Internal Flow
 each sentence of a paragraph should set the stage
for the following sentence. Each internal sentence
should be an extension of its predecessor.
 the subject or object from sentence number one the

subject or object of sentence number two.

 Connect Succeeding Paragraphs
 by making the lead sentence of each paragraph
refer to the previous paragraph.
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15.1. WRITING SCIENTIFIC TEXT
 BEGIN TO WRITE WHILE YOU EXPERIMENT
 START BROADLY, WORK ON THE DETAILS LATER
 A MAGNIFIED VIEW OF THE WRITING PROCESS
 Use the Skeletal Outlines

 Pile in Ideas

 Collect Information from Outside Resources

 Form Rough Sentences

 Arrange the Sentences into Themes

 Make Your Themed Lists into Rough

Paragraphs
 Put Together One Paragraph for Each Topic

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15.2. WRITING DURING RESEARCH
 Writing drafts of your scientific Report/paper while you
are experimenting helps to keep your day-to-day
research orderly
 KEEP A COMPUTERIZED NOTEBOOK for both a
diary and a reference record
 The Diary—Record Your Work Notes
 Two types of diary entries require some extra
forethought:
 notes about your experimental techniques and
 records of your results
 References—Archive Your Sources
 Computerized reference records make these notes easy
to organize, to search, and to reorganize.
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15.3. COMPOSING THE SECTIONS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
 To deliver content with the least distractions, scientific
papers have a stereotyped form and style.
 The standard format of a research paper has six
sections:
 Title and Abstract, which summarize the paper
 Introduction, which describes where the paper’s
research question fits into current science
 Materials and Methods, which translates the research
question into a detailed method of operations
 Results, which is an orderly compilation of the data
observed after following the research recipe
 Discussion, which consolidates the data and connects it
to the data of other researchers
 Conclusion, which gives the one or two scientific points
to which the entire paper leads
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15.3. COMPOSING A RESEARCH PAPER…..

 It is more efficient to work on the draft of

your paper from the middle out, from the
known to the discovered,

 1. Materials and Methods

 2. Results

 3. Discussion

 4. Conclusion

 5. Introduction

 6. Title and Abstract

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15.3. COMPOSING A RESEARCH PAPER…..
 Your Materials and Methods can be described before
you have generated your Results.
 Your Results must be collected and organized before
you can analyze them in your Discussion.
 Your Discussion recaps your Results and points you to
a Conclusion.
 You must know your Conclusion before you can write
an Introduction that sets the Conclusion in its natural
place in science.
 The Introduction shows that your Conclusion was
previously unknown or unproven.
 The Title and Abstract, which summarize your paper,
must first have a completed paper to summarize.
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15.3.1 Materials and Methods
 A Method  Results Report
 Begin writing your paper with the Materials and
Methods section
 Materials and Methods give definition and
meaning to your data
 Results are only scientific when accompanied by
the recipes used to generate
 irreducible core of a research paper is its central
pair of sections, the Materials and Methods and
the Results

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15.3.2 Writing Your Materials and Methods Section
 Your Daily Lab Notebook Is a First Draft
 record your materials and methods midst of your
experiments, when all the technical details are still
fresh in your mind.
 Be Exhaustive
 Explain the overall design of your research program
 Fully describe all the operations and procedures
 Cite references for all previously documented methods, including
any statistical methods
 Give complete recipes for any new or modified techniques
 Explain the procedures used to analyze your data
 Include Detailed Instructions
 Write a Statistical Methods/Experimental Plan Subsection
 Organize the Materials and Methods as an Instruction Manual
37
15.3.3 Results

 Carving Out Your Results from Your Observations

 Record Everything While You Experiment

 Limit Your Final Report to the Key Variables

 Exploratory Data Analysis

 Try Out a Variety of Visual Arrangements
 Tables- when data are few
 Graphs-
 Pictures, Diagrams, and Charts
 Write a Description of the Pattern in Your Data 38
15.3.4 DISCUSSION
 Discussion should do two things:
 First, it should present a clear, concise summary of
your data.
 Second, it should link your observations to those of

other scientists in one or both of these ways:

 Include an annotated list comparing specific
aspects of your data to data that is already in
the scientific archives.
 Use your data and related data from the
scientific archives to generate a proposal, a
generality, a theory, or a model..

39
Suggestions: Notes on Writing Thesis
 1. Know your audience and write for that specific audience:
scientific and technical writing can almost never be general purpose.
It must be written for a specific audience. This audience is
represented by your professors and peers. Therefore, you must
adopt the style and level of writing that is appropriate for your
audience.

 2. Your supervisor/professor is not here to teach you basic

grammar and spelling: the more time and emotional energy s/he
spends on correcting Basic English usage, the less remains of
content or fine –tuning.

 3. Do not turn in a first draft: it is a waste of supervisors or editor’s

time to read material that is not yet ready to be presented and it is
disrespectful to expect them to do so. Consider forming a mutual
editing team with other students to review each others work. You
should be come accustomed both to other peoples work and having
40
your own reviewed.
Suggestions: Notes on Writing Thesis…
 4. Do not use more words where fewer will do: attempt to be
brief and to the point. Do not use special words to make your writing
seem more technical, scientific or academic when the message is
more clearly presented otherwise.
 5. Think about the structure of paragraphs: poorly structured
paragraphs are one of the most common problems found in student
writing. Though most students can write reasonable sentences, a
surprising number have difficulty organizing sentences into
paragraphs. A paragraph should begin with a topic sentence that
sets the stage clearly for what will follow. One of the most
comments on student papers is that contents of a paragraph do not
reflect the topic sentence. Many writers try to finish each paragraph
with a sentence that forms a bridge to the next paragraph. Avoid
paragraphs that contain one or two sentences, this is because they
cannot develop ideas adequately. Two-sentence paragraphs usually
represent either misplaced pieces of other paragraphs or fragments
of ideas that should be removed or expanded.
41
Suggestions: Notes on Writing Thesis…
 6. Pay attention to tenses: problems of inappropriate or
inconsistent tenses are common in student writing. What
you or others did in the past should be stated in the past
tense (e.g. data were collected). Events or objects that
continue to happen or exist can be described in the
present tense (i.e. in this paper, I examine …). Events
that will take place in the future can be in the future
tense. Whatever tense you choose, be consistent.
 7. Captions should not merely name a table or figure;
they explain how to read it: a caption (figure or table
heading) should contain sufficient information so that a
reader can understand a table or figure in most cases
without reference to text.

42
Suggestions: Notes on Writing Thesis…
 8. Write about your results, not your figures and static’s:
confusing and disjointed results sections often arise because the
writer does not have a clear idea of the story s/he intends to tell. The
frequent consequences of this is a result section consisting of long
seemingly unrelated sequence of tables and figures. Novice writers of
scientific papers frequently pay little attention to discussing the
content of the tables and figures. They sometimes merely present a
list of references (e.g. table 1 shows this results, table 2 shows that
result, figure 1 shows that other...). When writing results sections you
should use the tables and figures to illustrate points in the text, rather
than making them the subject of your text. Rather than writing, figure
4 shows the relationship between the numbers of species A and
species B. The abundances of species A and B species were
inversely related.
 9. Introductions and conclusions are the hardest parts: plan on
spending a lot of time on them.
 10. Use word processors effectively and back up your work
regularly : 43