Nutrition

iGCSE Biology
Learning Outcome 1

• Explain in simple terms why food is

required by animals.
You are what you eat!!

• In this lesson you will

– Look at what is a balanced diet
– Carry out food tests on
• Starch
• Glucose
• Protein
• Fat
– Discuss what happens if you don’t eat a
balanced diet
Balanced Diet
What is a balanced diet?
• Your diet must include five groups of food
substances
– Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals and
vitamins
• It must also include water and fibre.
• A balanced diet is a diet that provides
enough of these substances in the correct
proportions to keep you healthy.
Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates give us energy.
• Chemical elements – C, H and O.
• Starch is made from simple sugars.
 Testing for glucose
1. Pour some glucose solution into a test
tube
2. Add a few drops of benedict's solution
3. Heat in a water bath
 Testing For Starch
• Put a few drops of starch
solution on a spotting tile.
• Add a few drops of iodine.
Proteins
• Proteins are needed for growth and
repair.
• Proteins are made from amino
acids
• Chemical elements – C, H, O, N
(and S)
Testing for Proteins
1. Put 2 ml of protein solution in
a test tube
2. Add 2ml of Biurets reagent
Fats

• Fats are an energy store,

protecting vital organs and
providing insulation.
• Fats contain C, H and O
• Fats are made from a glycerol
molecule and three fatty acids.
Testing for fat (the emulsion test)
• Add a few drops of cooking oil into a test
tube
• Add 2cm3 ethanol and shake
• Add 2cm3 water and shake again.
Nutrients
Learning Outcomes
• list the chemical elements that make up:
– carbohydrates
– fats
– Proteins
• Describe the synthesis of large molecules from
smaller basic units
• list the principal sources of, and describe the
importance of carbohydrates, fats, proteins,.
Quick Revision
• A balanced diet must contain all the essential
nutrients in the correct amounts and proportions.
• The nutrients needed are
– Carbohydrate
– Fat
– Protein
– Vitamins
– Minerals
– Fibre
– Water.
 Main Nutrients

Nutrient Elements Use in body Good food sources

present
Carbohydrate Carbon, Source of Rice, potato, bread
hydrogen, energy
oxygen
Fats and oils Carbon, Source of Butter, milk, cheese,
hydrogen, energy egg yolk
oxygen Insulation
Protein Carbon, Growth and Meat, fish, eggs,
hydrogen, tissue repair soya, milk
oxygen,
nitrogen
What you really need to remember!!

• Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are all

made up of the elements carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
• Proteins always contain nitrogen and
sometimes sulphur
• One way to remember this is
– Carb O Hydrate
Carbohydrates

• Large carbohydrates molecules such as

starch and glycogen are made up of long
chains of smaller units, e.g.
monosaccharides (glucose), which are held
together by chemical bonds
Fats

• Fats are made up of three fatty acids and a

glycerol
Proteins

• Proteins are made up of long chains of

amino acids
Food Tests

• What is the test for starch?

• What is the test for glucose?
• What is the test for protein?
• What is the test for fats?

• What does a positive result look like?

Learning Outcomes
• list the principal sources of, and describe the
importance of:
– vitamins (C and D only)
– mineral salts (calcium and iron only)
– fibre (roughage)
– water
• describe the deficiency symptoms for:
– vitamins (C and D only)
– mineral salts (calcium and iron only)
Vitamin C
• Function
– Maintain healthy skin and gums
• Good Food Source
– Citrus fruits, black currants, cabbage, tomato,
guava, mango
• Effect of deficiency
– Scurvy
• Bleeding under skin
• Bleeding gums
Vitamin D
• Function
– Needed to maintain hard bones
– Helps absorb calcium from small intestine
• Good Food Source
– Milk, cheese, egg yolk, fish liver oil
– Made in skin when exposed to sunlight
• Effect of deficiency
– rickets
Calcium

• Function
– Healthy teeth and bones
– Normal blood clotting
• Good Food Source
– Milk, cheese, fish
• Effect of deficiency
– Rickets
– Slow blood clotting
Iron
• Function
– Formation of haemoglobin in red blood cells
• Good Food Source
– Red meat, liver, kidney, eggs, green vegetables
(spinach), chocolate
• Effect of deficiency
– Anaemia
• Constant tiredness
• Lack of energy
Fibre
• Function
– This is cellulose which we can not digest
– It adds bulk to the undigested food in the intestines,
maintaining peristalsis
• Good Food Source
– Vegetables, fruit, wholemeal bread
• Effect of deficiency
– Constipation
– Long term deficiency may lead to bowel cancer
Water
• Function
– Formation of blood, cytoplasm
– Solvent for transport of nutrients and removal
of waste
– Enzymes only work in solution
• Good Food Source
– Drinks, fruits, vegetables
• Effect of deficiency
– dehydration
Pupil activity

• Design a mind map to summarise the

information you have been taught so far on
Nutrients.
 Main
Nutrients

fibre vitamins

Nutrients

water minerals
Learning Outcomes

• describe the use of microorganisms in the

food industry, with reference to yoghurt,
bread and single cell protein
• describe the uses, benefits and health
hazards associated with food additives,
including colourings
Micro-organisms in the food
industry

• Micro-organisms are heterotrophic – they take in

ready made foods molecules from their
environment.
• Examples of Microbes useful in food production
– Acetobacter – vinegar production
– Lactobacillus - yoghurt and cheese production
– “ripening” bacteria in cheese production
– Fusarium and mycoprotein
Use of micro-organism
process Use of microorganism

Yeast is mixed with flour, sugar and water to make dough. The yeast respire the
Baking sugar and produce pockets of carbon dioxide that makes the dough rise.
When the bread is baked the yeast is killed.

Yeast respires sugar to form ethanol and carbon dioxide. The ethanol makes the
Brewing drink alcoholic and the carbon dioxide gives the drink its fizz. The process is
called fermentation.
Bacteria are used to ferment milk at 46oC. As a result lactic acid is produced
Yoghurt which makes the milk lumpy (coagulate). The temperature is then reduced to 5 oC
making to prevent further bacterial action. The whole process is carried out in sterile
conditions

This is a protein produced by microorgansism such as bacteria. Fungi or

Single-cell unicellular algae in a fermentation vessel. While the product contains 72%
protein it does not taste very nice and is expensive to produce. An alternative is
protein quorn – this is a mycoprotein made from a filamentous FUNGUS, which has
12.2% protein, low fat content and 6% fibre.
Food Additives

• Food Additives are substances with no

nutritional value
• They are added to improve the
– Appearance
– Flavour
– Texture
– Storage properties of food
antioxidants

• Stop food reacting with oxygen, which may

spoil the taste of the food or change it’s
colour
Colourings

• Improve the appearance of food

• Some colourings can be hazardous
– Sunset yellow
• Hyperactivity
• Allergic reactions and asthma
Flavourings

• Enhance the taste of the food

– MSG – monosodium glutamate in processed
food
– Sugar
– Artificial sweetners e.g. aspartame
Preservatives

• Give processed foods a longer shelf life by

preventing the growth of micro-organisms
• Disadvantages of preservatives
– Sulphur dioxide - destroys vitamin B1
– Sodium nitrite - carcinogen
Progress Question
• Learn the groups of food preservatives listed below.
• Antioxidants
• Colourings
• Flavourings
• Preservatives

• For each group state:

– Its function in processed food
– One advantage of its use
– One disadvantage of its use

• Use page 46 and 47 in your textbooks to help you

Learning Outcomes

• describe tests for:

– starch (iodine solution)
– reducing sugars (Benedict's solution)
– protein (biuret test)
– fats (ethanol)

• Applying knowledge on food tests to

identify unknown liquids
Activity

• Use your knowledge of food tests from last

week to identify the food groups found in
solutions A, B C and D.
Learning Outcomes

• understand the concept of a balanced diet

• describe:
– a balanced diet related to age, sex and activity
of an individual
– the effects of malnutrition in relation to
starvation, coronary heart disease, constipation
and obesity
 What happens if you don’t eat a
balanced diet.
What is this cartoon trying
to demonstrate?

Can you think of any

examples of health
problems that arise from not
eating a balanced diet?

Give three examples and

explain the effects on health.
Dietary requirements

• Adequate diet
– Provides sufficient energy for the performance
of metabolic work
• Balance diet
– Provides all the dietary requirements in the
correct proportions
• 1/7 fat
• 1/7 protein
• 5/7 carbohydrate
Dietary requirements
• Energy is provided by fat and carbohydrate intake
• Dietary requirements depend on
– Age
• Energy demand increases until we stop growing
– Sex
• Males use up more energy than females
– Activity
• Physical work will use up more energy than office work.
An Unbalanced diet
Malnutrition

• An unbalanced diet could lead to

– Obesity
• Risks include coronary heart disease and diabetes
– Too much animal fat can lead to high cholesterol
• Risks include coronary heart disease and angina
– Lack of protein in diet can lead to kwashiorkor
– Lack of fibre can lead to constipation and bowel cancer
– Vitamin and mineral deficiencies
Pupil Activity

• Calculating BMI

• Follow the instructions on the sheet to

calculate your own BMI
• Answer the questions
Learning Outcomes

• Describe the effects of alcohol and the

dangers of its misuse
Effects of alcohol

• Alcohol is a drug
– It affects the nervous system
– Depressant
– Affects judgement and reaction time
Effects of Alcohol

• In small amounts
– Feeling of relaxation
• In larger amounts
– Affects balance
– Dizziness
– Slurred speech
– Problems with vision
– unconsciousness
Alcohol
• Long term effects
– Addiction – alcoholism
– Cirrhosis of the liver
– Stomach ulcers
– Cancers of the digestive system
– Heart disease
• Drinking during pregnancy
– Can affects the fetus
– Increasing risk of miscarriage
– Decreasing the average birth weight
Pupil Activity - BINGE
• Read through the information provided
• Should pubs stop cutting prices
– Write a paragraph on what you think
– Write a paragraph from the point of view from one of
the six characters.

• Remember whether or not you are for the scheme

or against it you must give reasons.
Learning outcomes

• discuss:
– the problems of world food supplies
– the problems which contribute to famine
Famine
• A severe shortage of food can lead to famine.
• Malnutrition
– Suffer from deficiency disease
– weakened immune system
• Results in
– Adults too ill to work
– Children become ill, adults care for them
– People die and society lacks experience and knowledge
Problems that lead to famine

• unequal distribution of food

– Some areas produce more food
• environment is more suitable
• More advanced agriculture
– Food surpluses can not always be moved to areas where
food is limited
• Drought
– Water is essential for plant growth and for healthy
animals
– Low rainfall reduces crop yield.
Problems that lead to famine

• Flooding
– Unpredictable flooding can reduce crop yield
– Plants are damaged
– Fertile soil can be washed away
• increasing population
– Need for food increases
– More buildings reduces land available
– More domestic animals reduces land available for food
production
Prep - Questions on Energy

• For Wednesday
– Question 1
• For Friday
– Questions 2, 3 and 4
Digestion
Learning Outcomes
• identify the gross structure of the
alimentary canal and associated organs
(mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small
intestine: duodenum and ileum, large
intestine: colon and rectum, anus, pancreas,
liver)
• define ingestion, digestion, absorption,
assimilation and egestion
What happens to the food we
eat?
The gut as a production line
What happens to the food we eat?

• Ingestion
– Intake of food into the mouth
• Digestion
– Breaking down large, insoluble food molecules
into smaller soluble ones using enzymes
• Absorption
– Digested food molecules pass across the wall of
the small intestine into the blood or the lymph
• Assimilation
– Uptake of food molecules by cells
• Egestion
– Passing out of undigested food, in the form of
faeces, from the anus

• Deamination
– Removal of nitrogen containing part of an
amino acid as urea.
Pupil Activity

• Label the diagram of the digestive system.

– Use the textbook supplied to help if needed

– Design a table to link the structure and function

of different parts of the digestive system.
 mouth Salivary glands

oesophagus
tongue

trachea
liver
stomach

Gall bladder
pancreas
Small Duodenum
intestine ileum colon Large
rectum intestine

appendix
anus
Learning Outcomes

• define ingestion, digestion, absorption,

assimilation and egestion
• describe the functions of the alimentary
canal's various parts in relation to ingestion,
digestion, absorption, assimilation and
egestion of food
Learning Outcomes

• identify the types of human teeth and

describe their functions
• state the causes of dental decay and
describe the proper care of teeth
Digestion

• Digestion is the breakdown

of large, insoluble food
molecules into small,
soluble food molecules so
that they can be absorbed
into the blood stream.
Feeding in mammals

• Mechanical digestion
– teeth are used to bite pieces of food and to
chew it into smaller pieces
• The shapes of teeth are suited to their
function.
– Incisors and canines are used for biting
– Premolars and molars are used for chewing and
crushing food.
Human Jaw
teeth
• There are different types of teeth, each specially
shaped to perform a particular job.
– Incisor
• A broad flat sharp tooth found at the front of the mouth.
Designed for biting and cutting food.
– Canine
• A sharp pointed tooth for piercing flesh and tearing.
– Pre-molar & molar
• A broad flat tooth with many cusps. Its rough surface is used
for crushing, grinding and chewing food
Structure of a tooth
• Colour in your
diagram of the tooth,
• Colour in the positions
of the different types
of teeth in the human
jaw
Structure of a tooth

enamel
crown dentine
gum
Pulp cavity

root cement
Causes of dental decay
• Bacteria and food deposits form plaque
• Bacteria feed on sugars and produce acid
• Acid dissolves the enamel forming a hole
• Dentine dissolves more rapidly
• If hole reaches pulp cavity can lead to bacterial
infection, toothache and abscess
Proper care of teeth

• Avoid sugary foods

• Use dental floss or a tooth pick
• Use a fluoride toothpaste
• Visit dentist regularly
Fluoride

• Growing children absorb fluoride from their

diet
• It becomes part of enamel of developing
teeth
• Enamel becomes more resistant to tooth
decay
 Adding fluoride to public water
supplies

• Advantages • Disadvantages
– Tooth decay in – Form of mass medication
children decreases – Fluoride can cause mottling
– No need to buy (white patches) of teeth
fluoridated – Only benefits growing
toothpaste children
– Unnecessary if proper care of
teeth is taken
– Side effects (bone cancer?)
Learning Outcome

• describe the processes of chewing and

peristalsis
Digestion of Food
• The digestion of food can either be
mechanical or chemical.
• Mechanical digestion includes
– Chewing
– Action of muscles in oesophagus, stomach and
small intestine
• In chemical digestion enzymes catalyse the
breakdown of larger food molecules into
smaller food molecules.
Digestion in the mouth and
oesophagus
• Chewed food is mixed with saliva in the mouth
• Saliva contains
– Amylase is an enzyme which starts to digest starch into
sugars (maltose)
– Mucus helps soften the food making it easier to
swallow
• The bolus travels down the oesophagus with the
aid of peristalsis
Peristalsis in the gullet
Digestion of Starch

• Take 10ml of 1% starch solution

– Test for starch
– Test for sugars
Action of amylase on starch
• Put a drop of iodine solution into all the wells on a
white spotting tile
• Add 10ml 1% starch solution and 10ml 1%
amylase solution to a test tube.
• Every minute, test the contents of the test tube for
starch.
• After 15 minutes – test the solution for the
presence of sugars

• Write a conclusion on your results

Learning Outcomes

• The significance of producing small,

soluble molecules
• describe:
– digestion in the alimentary canal
– the functions of a typical amylase, protease and
lipase, listing the substrate and end-products
Digestion

• Digestion is the breakdown

of large, insoluble food
molecules into small,
soluble food molecules so
that they can be absorbed
into the blood stream.
Digestion in Alimentary Canal

• Physical Digestion
– Increases the surface area of food
• Chewing in the mouth
• Churning food in stomach and small intestine
• Bile emulsifies fats – turns them into smaller
droplets with a larger surface area
Digestion in Alimentary Canal

• Chemical Digestion
– Breakdown of large insoluble molecules into
smaller soluble ones
– Enzymes act as biological catalysts – they
speed up the process
– They work efficiently at body temperature
(37OC) and at a suitable pH
Digestive enzymes
• There are different types of digestive
enzyme
– Proteases break down proteins into amino acids
– Lipases break down fats into fatty acids and
glycerol
– Amylase breaks down starch into maltose
(sugar)
• Maltose is then broken down by maltase to form glucose
 Summary – digestive enzymes

Enzyme Site of action substrate End products

Amylase Mouth, Maltose

Starch
duodenum Glucose
Protease Stomach,
Protein Amino acids
duodenum
lipase Fatty acids
duodenum fat
glycerol
Chemical Digestion
• Hydrogen carbonate ions
– Secreted by pancreas
– Neutralises acid, enabling enzymes in small
intestine to work 

• Bile
– Produced by liver, stored in gall bladder,
secreted into small intestine
– Emulsifies fats (Larger surface area for
enzymes to work on)
Prep

• Surface area and digestion

– Read the information
– Answer questions 1- 3
– Answer question Ho2
• A snake swallowed a mouse whole. Explain why it
took several days to digest it.
Learning Outcomes

• define the term catalyst

• define enzymes as proteins that function as
biological catalysts
• describe the effect of changes in
temperature and pH on enzyme activity
Enzymes
• Are proteins
• Are produced by cells
• Change chemical substances into new products
• Are “specific” to one substance
• Work best at their “optimum temperature” (around
30 – 40oC)
• Work best at an optimum pH
Protein Digestion
• Protein digestion occurs in the stomach and small
intestine.
• Protease enzymes are produced by the gastric pits
in the stomach lining or by the pancreas.
• In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is also produced
which provides the optimum pH for trypsin to
work
Protein Digestion
• Add 2ml of protein solution to three test
tubes.
• Number the test tubes 1, 2 and 3
1. Add 1ml HCl
2. Add 1ml Water
3. Add 1ml HCl
• Do not add the trypsin until last
1. Add 0.5ml water
2. Add 0.5ml trypsin
3. Add 0.5ml trypsin
Protein digestion

• Leave for 10 minutes

• Test each of the test tubes for the presence
of protein using Biurets reagent.

• Explain your results.

Fat Digestion
• Milk does not dissolve in water, in the digestive
system, bile produce by the liver (stored in the gall
bladder) emulsifies fats to give a larger surface
area for enzymes to work on.

• You are going to use phenolphthalein to

investigate the effect of bile on the digestion of
fat.
Fat Digestion

• Take 4 test tubes and number them 1, 2, 3

and 4.
• set up the test tubes as shown in the table
below.
Test tube 1 2 3 4
Milk 3 ml 3ml 3ml 3ml
Bile 0 0.5ml 1 ml 1ml
Water 1ml 0.5ml 0 0
Fat Digestion
• Add 5 drops of phenolphthalein to each test tube
• Add sodium carbonate to each test tube until the
solution goes pink.

• Add 0.5ml of lipase to test tubes 1, 2 and 3.

• Add 0.5 ml water to test tubes 4.
• Observe your results. Try to explain what you are
observing.
Learning Outcomes

• define enzymes as proteins that function as

biological catalysts
• describe the effect of changes in
temperature and pH on enzyme activity
Effect of temperature on enzymes

• The optimum temperature for enzyme controlled

reactions is around 37oC
– Above optimum
• Slows reaction down
• Enzyme becomes denatured – enzyme loses it shape, deforming
the active site so that the substrate no longer fits.
– Below optimum
• Slower reaction – lack of energy in molecules
Graph – effect of temperature on the
rate of enzyme activity
 Effect of pH on enzymes
• pH of a solution is how acid or alkaline it is
• Most enzymes have optimum pH 7
• Exceptions
– Pepsin pH2.0 stomach
– Salivary amylase pH 6.8 mouth
– Catalase pH 7.6 plants
– Pancreatic amylase pH 9.0 duodenum
Effect of pH on enzymes

• An extreme pH can denature enzymes –

permanently altering the active site
Graph - Effect of pH on enzyme
activity
Pupil Activity

• Question sheet on enzymes

Learning Outcomes

• identify the small intestine as the region for

the absorption of digested food
• describe the significance of villi in
increasing the internal surface area
• describe the structure of a villus, including
the role of capillaries and lacteals
What happens next?
Absorption in the ileum

• The small intestine is well designed for

absorption, it has
– Thin lining
– A good blood supply
– A very large surface area (about 9m2)
Villi
• Increase the surface area for absorption
• Each villus contains
– Blood capillaries that absorb glucose and amino acids
– Lacteals which absorb fatty acids and glycerol
• Absorption is by
– Diffusion – thin lining only 1 cell thick
– Active transport – cells contain mitochondria to
provide energy
Absorption in the Villi
The Model Gut

A model of absorption
“the model gut”
 Making a model gut
• Wash a 12cm length of visking tubing
(A) in warm water.
• Tie a knot in one end
C
• Fill the tubing with 10cm3 of starch and
glucose solution(B). B
• Wash the outside of the tubing.
A
• Put it into a boiling tube containing DI
water (C)
– holding it in place with a rubber band
Model Gut Results

• In the next lesson

– Take a sample of the water in the boiling tube
• Test the water for glucose
• Test the water for starch
Conclusions of the experiment

• Draw conclusions from the experiment,

explaining what the results were, and how
the model gut represents the real situation

• E.g. what does the water represent, what

does the Visking tubing represent, etc.
Learning Outcomes

• indicate the role of the hepatic portal vein in

the transport of absorbed food to the liver
Hepatic portal vein

• Transports absorbed food from the small

intestine to the liver
• After a meal, high concentrations of glucose
and amino acids are in the blood
– The liver reduces the levels back to normal
The liver

• Excess glucose arriving in the liver is

converted to glycogen for storage
• Excess amino acids can not be stored in the
body
– The liver removes these from the blood and
breaks them down to form an energy source
and urea.
Fat

• Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed into

the lacteals
• Body cells take up the re-formed fat
molecules
– Used in respiration as a source of energy
– Stored
Large intestine and the
elimination of waste.

• A watery mix of enzymes and undigested

food (mainly fibre) moves into the colon.
• Water is absorbed back into the blood
stream.
• Faeces are compacted in the rectum and
egested through the anus.
Pupil Activity - Diagrams

• Use your notes and your textbooks to help

you label the diagrams.
• Complete for prep.

• There are key words and phrases in the

boxes beside the diagrams to help you.
 What do they
The end think they are
looking at?