DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING;
CEDAT, MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

By
KADDU DAVID
“““Things are Harder Tomorrow; They are Better
Done Today”””
 Bitumen is a viscous liquid or solid material,
black or dark brown in color, having adhesive
properties.
 It consists of hydrocarbons, derived from
petroleum or occurring in natural asphalt, and
soluble in carbon disulphide (CS2).
 It is substantially non – volatile, non – toxic and
softens gradually when heated.
 Naturally occurring Bitumen
 These are formed from the remains of ancient, microscopic
algae (diatoms) and other once-living things.
 These remains were deposited in the mud on the bottom of
the ocean or lake where the organisms lived. Under the heat
(above 50°C) and pressure of burial deep in the earth, the
remains were transformed into materials such as
asphalt/bitumen, kerosene, or petroleum.
 Deposits at the La Brea Tar Pits are an example.

 Natural deposits of asphalt/bitumen include lakes

such as the Pitch Lake in Trinidad and Tobago and
Lake Bermudez in Venezuela.
 Natural seeps of asphalt/bitumen occur in the La
Brea Tar Pits and in the Dead Sea.
 They are subdivided into:
 Asphalts occurring in a fairly pure state, i.e.
generally small deposits consisting of
hydrocarbons with little or no mineral matter
 Asphalts with an appreciable proportion of
mineral matter e.g. Trinidad Lake Asphalt in the
West Indies, Bermudez Lake Asphalt in Venezuela
 Mineral matter associated with small proportions
of asphalt e.g. natural rock asphalts found in
France, Switzerland, Columbia. – Rock asphalts
are usually limestone or sandstones impregnated
with natural bitumen.
 Refinery Bitumens
 Are artificially produced by the industrial
refining of crude petroleum oils.
 They are also known as residual bitumens,
straight – run bitumens, steam – refined
bitumens.
The composition of asphaltic base
petroleum crude is shown below. The
proportions in any particular instance will
vary with the crude.
Bitumen is obtained from the crude by a
refinery distillation process which involves
condensation in a fractionating column.
 Asphalt is one of the two principal
constituents of asphalt concrete.
 Asphalt functions as a waterproof,
thermoplastic, viscoelastic adhesive.
 In other words, it acts as the glue that holds the
road aggregates together.
 Asphalt is a class of black or dark-colored (solid,
semi-solid or viscous) cementitious substances,
natural or manufactured, composed principally
of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which
asphalts, tars, pitches, and asphaltenes are
typical.
 Crude oil is heated in a large furnace to about 340o C (650o F)
and partially vaporized.
 It is then fed into a distillation tower where the lighter
components vaporize and are drawn off for further
processing.
 The residue from this process (the asphalt) is usually fed into
a vacuum distillation unit where heavier gas oils are drawn
off.
 Asphalt cement grade is controlled by the amount of heavy
gas oil remaining. Other techniques can then extract
additional oils from the asphalt.
 Depending upon the exact process and the crude oil source,
different asphalt cements of different properties can be
produced.
 Additional desirable properties can be obtained by blending
crude oils before distillation or asphalt cements after
distillation.
 The composition of base crude oil from which
asphalt is refined can vary widely and thus
the asphalt yield from different crude oil
sources can also vary widely.
 The American Petroleum Institute (API)
classifies crude oils by their API gravity. API
gravity is an arbitrary expression of a
material’s density at 15.5o C (60oF) and is
obtained in the following equation:
 API gravity can be used as a rough estimate
of asphalt yield.
 Crudes with lower API gravity crude oils
producing more asphalt and are said to be
sour, while the ones with high API are sweet.
 Bitumen chemistry is highly complex and therefore
not well understood.
 Elemental composition:
 Principally composed of Carbon and Hydrogen.
 Also has hetero-atoms namely S (next most
abundant element) , N and O (these are present in
very small amounts)
 Metallic elements e.g. Nickel (Ni), Vanadium (v)
etc.(may also be present in very trace amounts)
 The type of molecular structure is more important
than the amount of each element.
 There is high diversity in molecular composition
depending on the crude source, refining source,
storage etc.
 Asphalt cements contain a combination of
the following three arrangements by which
the carbon atoms are linked with each other:
 Straightor branched chains: such asphalt cements
are generally called “aliphatic” or “paraffinic”
types
 Simple or complex saturated rings: saturated
means the highest possible hydrogen / carbon ratio
in the asphalt molecules. These asphalt cements
are usually referred to as naphthenic types
 One or more stable six – carbon condensed,
unsaturated ring structures: these asphalt cements
are called aromatic types. Benzene and
naphthalene have such structures.
 Functional or polar groups
 Heteroatoms (S, N & O) are attached to carbon
atoms in asphalt molecules in different
configurations and in form of different
compounds.
 These configurations (molecules) are polar
because there is an imbalance of
electrochemical forces within the molecule
which produces a dipole.
 Therefore, each polar molecule has
electropositive and electronegative
characteristics similar to a magnet which has
north and south poles.
 Since like charges repel and unlike charges attract
each other, molecular interactions are induced in
asphalt cements which strongly influence their
physical or engineering properties and performance.
 These configurations of heteroatoms thus impart
functionality and polarity to asphalt molecules and
are therefore called functional or polar groups.
 Functionality (presence of functional groups) relates
to how the asphalt molecules interact with each
other or with surfaces and / or molecules of other
materials.
 For example, selective adsorption of functional or
polar groups by aggregate surfaces is important to
understand the stripping phenomena.
 Although present in small amounts, these polar
groups vary in characteristics from asphalt to
asphalt and have a large effect on the
performance of asphalt cement from different
sources.
 Also, the non – polar components of asphalt
cement, which act as solvents or dispersants
for the polar or functional groups, play a
major role in determining the effect that the
polar groups will have on the physical and
aging properties of the asphalt cement.
 The hetero-atoms form configurations with
different functional or polar groups.
Sulphur – sulfides, Polysulfides, Thiols,
Thiophenes, etc
Nitrogen – pyridinic, pyrrole, porphyrins
Oxygen – carboxylic acids / Naphthenic acids,
phenols, ketones, esters, ethers, anhydrides,
etc.
 Conceptual composition model
 Asphaltenes
 Asphaltenes are insoluble (or precipitated) when the asphalt
cement is dissolved in a nonpolar solvent such as pentane,
hexane, or heptanes. The component which is dissolved is
called Maltenes (or petrolenes) comprised of oils and resins.

 They are generally dark brown, friable solids.

 They are the bodying agents of bitumens
 Are precipitated by non-polar solvents like n-pantane, n-
hexane, instead of n-heptane because the number of carbon
atoms in n-pentane is less than that in n-heptane.
 Most complex and highly polar and hence have a high tendency
to interact and associate.
 They play a major role as the viscosity-building (bodying)
components of asphalt cements.
 Resins
 Are generally dark and semi solid or soli in
character.
 Are Fluid when heated and brittle when cooled
 They work as agents that disperse or peptize the
Asphaltenes throughout the oils to provide a
homogeneous liquid. (They act as dispersers for
the Asphaltenes in the oil medium)
 Soluble in non – polar solvents
 On oxidation, they yield Asphaltenes type
molecules
 Oils
 Are colorless white liquids
 Soluble in most solvents
 They have paraffinic and naphthenic structures
with no oxygen and nitrogen usually present. On
oxidation, they yield Asphaltenes and resin
molecules.
 Oils
 Are colorless white liquids
 Soluble in most solvents
 They have paraffinic and naphthenic structures
with no oxygen and nitrogen usually present. On
oxidation, they yield Asphaltenes and resin
molecules.
 Bitumen is considered a colloidal or micellar
system
 The relative amounts and characteristics of
Asphaltenes, resins and oils present in asphalt
cement influence its physical properties and
performance in a mixture. These influences
make bitumen act as a “sol”, “sol – gel” or
“gel”
 “Sol”is whereby the resins keep the Asphaltenes
highly peptized or dispersed in the oil phase. They
exhibit Newtonian flow behavior. Nitrogen bases in
asphalt cement are primarily responsible for the
“sol” characteristics.
 “Gel” is whereby the resins are not very
effective in peptizing the Asphaltenes in the
oil. Excessive presence of paraffins in relation
to nitrogen bases also tends to reduce
solubility, leading to increased “gel”
characteristics and suggesting increased
separation of the dispersed and dispersing
phases. They exhibit non- Newtonian behavior
(Visco–elastic flow).
 Most bitumen is “sol-gel” i.e. they are
intermediate between “sol” and “gel”.
“goodies were removed
after 1970 Arab oil
embargo”
 Bitumen is normally straight run if it is not
treated with any chemical solvent. Other
Products of bitumen after treatment include:
 CUTBACKS
 EMULSIONS

 Are liquid asphalts manufactured by adding (cutting
back) petroleum solvents (also called cutter stock or
diluents) to asphalt cements. –
 Are a combination of bitumen and a petroleum
solvent.
 Cutbacks differ from penetration grade bitumens in
that the bitumen is dissolved in a liquid solvent which
makes it suitable for direct application and
manipulation in road construction.
 While the solvent is primarily a substitute for heat, in
man instances it is more useful than heat since its
liquefying effect lasts over a longer period of time.
 They are made to reduce the asphalt viscosity for
lower application temperatures.
 Application to aggregate or pavement causes the
solvent to escape by evaporation, thus leaving the
asphalt cement residue on the surface
 Rapid – Curing (RC) cutbacks: light diluents (solvent)
of high volatility, generally gasoline or naphtha,+
asphalt cement.
 These are used primarily for tack coat and surface
treatments.
 Medium Curing Cutbacks (MC): medium diluents
(slightly low volatile solvent) of intermediate volatility
(generally kerosene) + asphalt cement.
 These are generally used for prime coat, stockpile
patching mixtures and road mixing operations.
 Slow – Curing Cutbacks (SC): oils of low volatility)
generally diesel or other gas oils) + asphalt cement.
 They are also called road oils. They are generally
used for prime coat, stockpile patching mixtures and
as dust palliatives.
 Cutbacks asphalts are commercially available in
different grades, the thinnest and most fluid grade
designated by the suffix number 30, which is available
in MC type only.
 Other suffix numbers, 70, 250,800 and 3000 denoting
increasing higher viscosities, are available in all types.
 These suffix numbers represent the minimum
kinematic viscosity in densities at 140oF for the
particular grade.
 Emulsified asphalts (also called emulsion) is a mixture
of asphalt cement (bitumen), water and an
emulsifying agent.
 Because asphalt cement will not dissolve in water,
asphalt cement and water exist in separate phases as
shown below:
 Hot asphalt cement and water containing the
emulsifying agent (e.g. soap) are passed under
pressure through a colloid mill to produce extremely
small (less than 5-10 microns) globules or droplets of
asphalt cement which are suspended in water.
 The emulsifying agent imparts an electric charge to
the surface of the droplets which causes them to repel
one another, and thus the globules do not coalesce.
 Emulsified asphalts are categorized as liquid asphalts
because, unlike asphalt cements, they are liquid at
ambient temperatures.
 Emulsions are made to reduce asphalt viscosity for
lower application temperatures.
 Anionic – electro – negatively charged droplets
 Cationic – electro – positively charged asphalt
droplets
 If the emulsifying agent is anionic, the asphalt
droplets bear a negative charge and if it is
cationic, the droplets bear a positive charge.
 Cation type emulsions are therefore mixed with
negatively charged aggregates while anionic ones
are mixed with positively charged aggregates.
 Most mineral aggregates bear a positive or a
negative or mixed charge on the surface.
 Most siliceous aggregates, such as sandstone,
quartz and siliceous gravel, are negatively
charged and are therefore compatible with the
positively charged cationic emulsions.
 Some aggregates on the other hand e.g. limestone
bear a positive surface charge and are generally
compatible with the negatively charged anionic
emulsified asphalts.
 Emulsified asphalts are also graded according to
their “setting” rate.
 The anionic emulsified asphalts include Rapid
setting (RS), Medium Setting (MS) and Slow Setting
(SS) as specified in ASTM D977.
 The setting rate is controlled by the type and amount
of the emulsifying agent. The anionic grades are RS –
1, HFRS – 2, RS-2, MS-1, HFMS-2, MS-2, MS-2h, SS-1 and
SS-1h.
 The h designation means a harder base asphalt cement
is used in the emulsion.
 The HF designation refers to a high float residue,
which is an indication of chemical gelling of the
emulsion residue.
 The cationic emulsified asphalts which are specified in
ASTM D2397 also include rapid setting (CRS), Medium
Setting (CMS), and slow setting (CSS) grades.
 The cationic grades are CRS–1, CRS–2, CMS–2, CMS–2h,
CSS–1, and CSS–1h.
 Rapid – Setting Grades: surface treatments and
penetration macadam
 Medium – Setting Grades: Open – graded cold asphalt –
aggregate mixtures
 Slow – Setting Grades: Tack cot, fog seal, dense
graded cold asphalt – aggregate mixtures and slurry
seals.
 Chemical properties of the base asphaltic bitumen
 Hardness and quantity of the base asphaltic bitumen
 Bitumen particle size emulsion
 Type and concentration of the emulsifying agent
 Manufacturing conditions such as temperatures,
pressures and shear
 The ionic charge on the emulsion particles
 The order of addition of the ingredients
 The type of equipment used in manufacturing the
emulsion
 The properties of the emulsifying agent
 Addition of the chemical modifiers
 Emulsified asphalts are increasingly being preferred to
cutbacks asphalts for the following reasons:
 Environmental regulations: emulsions are relatively
pollution free. Unlike cutback asphalts there are
relatively small amounts of volatiles to evaporate into
the atmosphere other than water.
 Loss of high energy products. When cutback asphalts
cure, the diluents which are high energy, high price
products are wasted into the atmosphere.
 Safety; emulsions are safe to use. There is little danger
of fire as compared to the cutback asphalts, some of
which have very low flash points.
 Lower application temperature. Emulsions can be
applied at relatively low temperatures compared to
cutback asphalts, thus saving fuel costs. Emulsions can
also be applied effectively to a damp pavement,
whereas dry conditions are required for cutback
asphalts.
 Lower application temperature. Emulsions can be
applied at relatively low temperatures compared to
cutback asphalts, thus saving fuel costs. Emulsions can
also be applied effectively to a damp pavement,
whereas dry conditions are required for cutback
asphalts.
 Durability: Durability is a measure of how asphalt
binder physical properties change with age
(sometimes called age hardening).
 With passage of time, bitumen viscosity increases,
becomes more stiff and brittle.
 Causes of Age Hardening include:
 Oxidation
 Thisis the reaction of oxygen with an asphalt binder.
The rate depends on the character of the asphalt
cement and the temperature.
 Volatilization
 It is the Evaporation of the lighter constituents of
asphalt binder. It is primarily a function of temperature
and occurs principally during mix production.
 Polymerization
 T he combining of like molecules to form larger
molecules. These larger molecules are thought to cause a
progressive hardening.
 Thixotropy
 Itis the progressive hardening due to the formation of
a structure within the asphalt cement over a period of
time which can be destroyed to a degree by reheating
and working the material.
 Also called “steric hardening”
 Generally associated with pavements which have little
or no traffic and its magnitude is a function of asphalt
composition.
 Syneresis
 Itis the exudation reaction in which the oily liquids
are exuded to the surface of the asphalt cement film.
 With the elimination of these oily constituents, the bitumen
becomes harder.
 The separation of less viscous liquids from the more
viscous asphalt binder molecular network.
 The liquid loss hardens the asphalt and is caused by
shrinkage or rearrangement of the asphalt binder
structure due to either physical or chemical changes.
 Syneresis is a form of bleeding.
 Separation
 Itis the removal of the oily constituents, resins or
Asphaltenes from the asphalt binder by selective
absorption of some porous aggregates.
 Penetration
 Itis the distance that a standard needle penetrates
into bitumen at 25oC under a load of 100g for duration
of 5 seconds.
 Melt and cool the asphalt binder sample under
controlled conditions.
 Measure the penetration of a standard needle into the
asphalt binder sample under the following conditions:
 Load = 100 grams
 Temperature = 25° C (77° F)

 Time = 5 seconds

 The depth of penetration is measured in units of 0.1 mm and

reported in penetration units (e.g., if the needle penetrates 8
mm, the asphalt penetration number is 80).
 Penetration Grading is based on the penetration test.
 Five standard penetration graded asphalt
cements, 40-50, 60-70, 80-100, 120-150, and 200-
300, are used in paving mixes.
 The higher the penetration, the softer the asphalt
cements. Therefore, 40-50 is the hardest grade,
200-300 is the softest grade.
 Advantages of penetration grading system
 Grading is based on consistency of the asphalt
cement at 77oF, (25oC) which is close to the average
pavement service temperature.
 Testing at 77oF, (25oC) may provide a better
correlation with low temperature properties than
the viscosity test which is measured at 140oF, (60oC)
 Testing time is relatively short and precise
 Penetration testing is adaptable to field conditions.
It can be used by the HMA contractor to detect
contamination of the asphalt cement (usually from
other petroleum distillates or asphalt cutbacks in the
transport units)
 Equipment costs are relatively low
 Precision limits for the penetration test are well
established
 Temperature susceptibility (change of asphalt
cement consistency with corresponding change if
temperature) of the asphalt cement can be
determined by measuring penetration at
temperatures other than 77oF, (25oC).
 Viscosity
 Is a measure of the resistance to flow, expressed
in poises (P). Viscosity is normally measured at
140oF, (60oC).
 Bitumen can be graded basing on viscosity as
specified in ASTM D3381based on:
 the viscosity of the original asphalt cement or
 on the viscosity of the asphalt cement after aging in the

rolling thin film oven (RTFO) test both viscosities are

measured at 140oF (60oC) and reported in poises.
 The viscosity grades based on original asphalt
cements include AC-2.5, AC-5, AC-10, AC-20, AC-
30 and AC-40. The numerical values indicate
viscosity at 140oF (60oC) in hundreds of poises.
 Viscosity
 AC 2.5 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 250P at
60oC
 AC 5 means Bitumen with a viscosity of 500P at
60oC

A poise is the standard unit of measurement for

viscosity.
 The lower the number of poises, the less viscous
the asphalt cements.
 AC 2.5 (Asphalt cement with a viscosity of 250P at 60 oC)
is “softer” than AC 40 (Asphalt cement with a viscosity
of 4000P at 60oC)
 Advantages of viscosity grading system
 Viscosity is a fundamental property, rather than
an empirical test and therefore is independent of
the test system and sample size.
 It is suitable to a wide range of environments
(pavement temperatures 77 to 140oF or 25oC to
60oC
 It is based on viscosity at 140oF (60oC) which is
near the maximum pavement surface
temperature generally experienced. This
temperature is critical for pavement performance
during hot summer days.
 A wide range of test instruments is available
 Test standards are available with established
precision limits
 Disadvantages of the viscosity grading system
 Grading at 140oF (60oC) is deceptive to
performance at average or low service
temperatures
 It is not adequate to safeguard against low
temperature cracking
 The test system is slightly more expensive than
the penetrometer
 Testing time is longer
 TFOT residue viscosity can vary considerable
within the same grade. E.g. AC20 asphalt
cements from two different sources can have
TFOT residue viscosities of 3,500 and 10,000
poises. These asphalts are likely to behave
differently during and after construction.
 AR Viscosity Grading System
 Based on the Aged Residue (AR) from the RTFO
test includes AR-1000, AR-2000, AR-4000, AR-8000,
and AR-16000.
 The numerical values indicate viscosity at 140oF
(60oC) in poises.
 AR-1000 represents a viscosity of 1000 poises at
140oF (60oC) of the aged reside.
 Advantages of AR viscosity grading system
 It represents asphalt properties after the HMA is
manufactures in a typical HMA batch facility
 Reasonable uniform behavior of asphalt cement is
expected from different sources but within the same
AR grade during lay down and compaction
 Disadvantages
 Itis highly regional
 Requires more testing equipment
 Testing time is longer because aged residue from the
RTFO test must be obtained first
 Detecting contamination is a problem because there
are no consistency requirements on original asphal
 Aged residue may not relate to hardening that occurs
in the drum mix process.
 SUPERPAVE PERFORMANCE GRADING
 Penetration grading and viscosity grading are
somewhat limited in their ability to fully characterize
asphalt binder for use in HMA pavement.
 Therefore, as part of the Superpave research effort
new binder tests and specifications were developed to
more accurately and fully characterize asphalt binders
for use in HMA pavements.
 These tests and specifications are specifically
designed to address HMA pavement performance
parameters such as rutting, fatigue cracking and
thermal cracking.

Developed by SHRP – Commonly referred to as

SUPERPAVE.
 Superpave performance grading (PG) is based on the
idea that an HMA asphalt binder’s properties should
be related to the conditions under which it is used.
For asphalt binders, this involves expected climatic
conditions as well as aging considerations.
 Reported using 2 Nos.– the first being the average seven-day
maximum pavement temperature (°C) and the second being the
minimum pavement design temperature likely to be experienced
(°C).
 Thus, a PG 58-22 is intended for use where the average seven-day
maximum pavement temperature is 58°C and the expected
minimum pavement temperature is -22°C. NOTICE THAT THESE
NUMBERS ARE PAVEMENT TEMPERATURES AND NOT AIR
TEMPERATURES (these pavement temperatures are estimated from
air temperatures using an algorithm contained in the [LTPP Bind]
program).
“””for God and my Country””””