1.

PH
Concrete has an initial pH of 12 to 13 (Duggal, 2008) making it alkaline in nature. This high pH
comes from the calcium hydroxide that moves into the pores of the set cement gel. This, in turn,
forms a thin film of oxide on the surface of the reinforcement steel providing protection from
corrosion thus providing passivation of steel.
However, the passivity of the steel is lost when the pH falls below 9.5 due to reduction in the
alkalinity of concrete by other corrosion agents like acids and carbon dioxide. This, in turn, causes
corrosion of the steel as shown in figure 1 below.

Figure 1 Relationship between pH and the corrosion risk of steel (adapted from Son & Yen, 1993)

2. OXYGEN
Oxygen as deterioration agent has the ability to oxidize steel in concrete in an electro-chemical
process as shown in figure 2. For the case of rusting, oxygen facilitates the formation of rust on
steel by combining with moisture to form hydroxyl ions at the cathode as shown by the equation
below;
𝑜𝑥ygen
⏞ −
𝑂2 (g) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(l) + 4𝑒 − → 4𝑂𝐻(aq) 𝑐𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

The formed hydroxyl ions move towards the anode and combine with iron ions to form ferrous
hydroxide (rust). This occupies more space hence can result in cracking of concrete.

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 Figure 2 Corrosion process of steel reinforcement in concrete aided by oxygen and water
(adapted from Son & Yen, 1993)

3. MOISTURE
Moisture is a principal deterioration agent that is a prerequisite for many physical, chemical or
biological reactions to take place (Son & Yen, 1993). These include;
I. It causes plastic shrinkage cracking in fresh concrete. This is after rapid
evaporation of moisture from the surface of the concrete has occurred causing
volumetric changes resulting in numerous fine cracks on plastic concrete.
II. Also, moisture facilitates the corrosion of steel as it is a requirement for rusting
and also provides moist conditions for carbonation corrosion to take place on steel
rebars.
4. CHLORIDE ION CONCENTRATION
High concentrations of chloride ions in concrete can penetrate into and break down the
protective film which forms on the reinforcement in an alkaline situation. The surface of the
steel then becomes activated locally and a small anode is formed, the passive surface providing
the cathode. The anode is much smaller in area than the cathode and, as a result, the formation
of the ferrous ions in the anode extends deeper and deeper, and a pit is formed as shown in
figure 3. The resultant expanded products cause cracking and spalling of the surrounding
concrete which, in turn, promotes chloride intrusion and further corrosion.

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Figure 3 Pitting corrosion by chloride ions (adapted from Son & Yen, 1993)

5. CARBONATION
Carbonation is the process in which atmospheric carbon dioxide gas reacts with the calcium
hydroxide in the hydrating cement paste to form calcium carbonate as shown in the equation
below;
Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 𝐶𝑂2 (g) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 (aq) + 𝐻2 𝑂 (l)

This reaction progressives as a frontal attack within the concrete, reducing the alkalinity of the
cement paste from a pH of 13 to 9.5 (Perkins, 1997). When the concrete cover to the rebars is
fully carbonated, the steel reinforcement begins to corrode in the presence of oxygen as shown
in figure 4 below.

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Figure 4 Development of corrosion from carbonation (adapted from Delatte, 2009)

6. CONCRETE QUALITY
The quality of concrete depends on the materials, design and workmanship of the concrete. Poor
workmanship results in poor concrete quality leading to defects like honeycombs.
7. THICKNESS OF CONCRETE COVER OVER STEEL REINFORCEMENT
The concrete cover is provided as protection for the steel reinforcement depending on the
concrete quality and exposure conditions. This provides a mechanical barrier to the movement
of water and oxygen to steel. A thicker concrete cover provides more protection since it takes a
longer time for the chloride ions to attack the rebars, however, excessive cover leads to the
formation of few wide cracks under overstress (Vijayalakshmi, n.d.).
8. HUMIDITY
Humidity has a role in cracking of plastic concrete. Low humidity encourages rapid evaporation
of moisture from fresh concrete hence causing concrete volumetric changes that result in fine
cracks, whereas, high humidity saturates the air around the concrete resulting in little or no
evaporation of moisture from the concrete.
9. CORROSION INHIBITORS
Corrosion inhibitors are materials that are added to concrete during batching or applied to the
concrete surface to prevent corrosion of steel. The inhibitors have different mechanism of
protecting the steel. Some inhibitors delay corrosion by reducing the rate of the corrosion
reactions, others by reducing the permeability of the concrete to chloride ions (Delatte, 2009).
For example, “a chemical ‘DCI-S’ is a liquid added to concrete during batching which chemically
inhibits the corrosive action of chlorides on steel reinforcement” (Perkins, 1997). It works by

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chemically reacting with the embedded steel ensuring the passivating layer on the steel is
maintained unbroken when chlorides are in contact with the steel.

Works Cited
Delatte, N., 2009. Failure, distress and repair of concrete structures. 1st ed. s.l.: Woodhead Publishing
Limited.

Duggal, S. K., 2008. Building Materials. 3rd ed. s.l.: New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers.

Perkins, P. H., 1997. Repair, Protection and Waterproofing of Concrete structures. 3rd ed. s.l.: Taylor &
Francis Group.

Son, L. H. & Yen, G. C., 1993. Building Maintenance Technology. 1st ed. s.l.: MACMILLAN PRESS LTD.

Vijayalakshmi, M., n.d. Repair and Rehabilitation of Structures. s.l.:s.n.

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