MOTIVATING

EMPLOYEES

16

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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Define motivation.
2. Compare and contrast early theories of motivation.
3. Compare and contrast contemporary theories of
motivation.
 Develop your skill at motivating employees.

4. Discuss current issues in motivation.

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  Managers want their employees to be connected to, satisfied with, and
enthusiastic about their jobs.
 This concept is known as employee engagement.
 Highly engaged employees are passionate about and deeply connected
to their work.
 Disengaged employees have essentially “checked out” and don’t care.
They show up for work, but have no energy or passion for it.
 Personality: the unique combination of emotional, thought, and
behavioral patterns that affect how a person reacts to situations and
interacts with others.

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 MBTI®

 MBTI® - a popular personality-assessment

instrument.
• Classifies individuals as exhibiting a
preference in four categories:
1. Extravert or introvert (E or I)
2. Sensitive or intuitive (S or N)
3. Thinking or feeling (T or F)
4. Judgmental or perceptive (J or P).

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 EXAMPLES OF MBTI®
PERSONALITY TYPES

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 BIG FIVE MODEL

In recent years, research has shown that five basic personality dimensions underlie all
others and encompass most of the significant variation in human personality. The five
personality traits in the Big Five Model are:
1. Extraversion: The degree to which someone is sociable, talkative, assertive, and
comfortable in relationships with others.
2. Agreeableness: The degree to which someone is good-natured, cooperative, and
trusting.
3. Conscientiousness: The degree to which someone is reliable, responsible, dependable,
persistent, and achievement oriented.
4. Emotional stability: The degree to which someone is calm, enthusiastic, and secure
(positive) or tense, nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative).
5. Openness to experience: The degree to which someone has a wide range of interests
and is imaginative, fascinated with novelty, artistically sensitive, and intellectual.

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 WHAT IS MOTIVATION

 Motivation gives reason for doing something.

Motivation is derived from the word motive which can
be viewed as the needs, desires, wants or targets,
which results in satisfaction.
Motivation – the process by which a person’s efforts are
energized, directed, and sustained toward attaining a
goal.
– energy is a measure of intensity, drive, and vigor
– effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the
organization
– we want employees to persist in putting forward
effort.

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 EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
• McGregor’s Theories X and Y
• Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
• McClelland’s Three Needs Theory

• These early theories are important because they represent the

foundation from which contemporary motivation theories were
developed and because many practicing managers still use them.

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 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
THEORY
 Hierarchy of needs theory – Maslow’s
theory that human needs—physiological,
safety, social, esteem, and self-
actualization—form a sort of hierarchy.
• Physiological needs – a person’s needs for
food, drink, shelter, and other physical
needs.

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 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
THEORY (CONT.)
• Safety needs – a person’s needs for security
and protection from physical and emotional
harm.
• Social needs – a person’s needs for
affection, belongingness, acceptance, and
friendship.

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 MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
THEORY (CONT.)
• Esteem needs – a person’s needs for internal
factors (e.g., self-respect, autonomy, and
achievement) and external factors (such as
status, recognition, and attention).
• Self-actualization needs – a person’s needs
for growth, achieving one’s potential, and
self-fulfillment: the drive to become what he
or she is capable of becoming.

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 EXHIBIT 16-1
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

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 MCGREGOR’S THEORY X AND THEORY Y:
BASED ON HUMAN NATURE

• Theory X (is a negative view of people ) – the assumption that employees

have little ambition, dislike work, are lazy, avoid responsibility,
therefore, need to be closely controlled to work effectively.
• Theory Y(is a positive view ) – the assumption that employees are
creative, enjoy work, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-
direction.
• According to McGregor:
• participation in decision-making,
• responsible and challenging jobs, and
• good group relations would maximize employee motivation.

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 HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR
THEORY
• Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene
theory) – the motivation theory that claims that
intrinsic factors are related to job satisfaction
and motivation,
• whereas extrinsic factors are associated with
job dissatisfaction. Improving extrinsic factors
reduce the job dissatisfaction but not motivate.

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 EXHIBIT 16-2
HERZBERG’S TWO FACTOR THEORY

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 HERZBERG’S TWO-FACTOR THEORY
(CONT.)
• Hygiene factors – factors that eliminate job
dissatisfaction, but don’t motivate.

• Motivators – factors that increase job

satisfaction and motivation.

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 EXHIBIT 16-3
CONTRASTING VIEWS OF SATISFACTION–
DISSATISFACTION

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 THREE-NEEDS THEORY
DAVID MCCLELLAND AND HIS ASSOCIATES

• Three-needs theory – the motivation theory that sites

three acquired (non-innate) needs (achievement, power,
and affiliation) as major motives in work.
• Need for achievement (nAch) – the drive to succeed
and excel in relation to a set of standards.
• People with a high need for achievement are striving for
personal achievement rather than for the financial and
other rewards of success.
• They have a desire to do something better or more
efficiently than it’s been done before.

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 THREE-NEEDS THEORY (CONT.)

• Need for power (nPow) – the need to make

others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise.

• Need for affiliation (nAff) – the desire for

friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

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 EXHIBIT 16-4
TAT PICTURES SOURCE

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 CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
• Goal-setting theory – the proposition that specific goals increase
performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in
higher performance than do easy goals.
• Self-efficacy – an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of
performing a task.
• Higher the self-efficacy, the more confidence one has in his/her
ability to succeed in a task.
• So, in difficult situations, people with low self-efficacy are likely
to reduce their effort or give up altogether,
• whereas those with high self-efficacy will try harder to master
the challenge.

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 GOAL-SETTING THEORY
SUMMARIZES THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG GOALS,
MOTIVATION, AND PERFORMANCE

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 REINFORCEMENT THEORY

• Reinforcement theory – the theory that

behavior is a function of its consequences.
• Reinforcers – consequences immediately
following a behavior which either increase the
probability that the behavior will be repeated
or deters the probability that the behavior will
not be repeated in future.

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 DESIGNING MOTIVATING JOBS

The jobs people perform in an organization should not evolve by

chance.
• Managers should design jobs deliberately and thoughtfully
• to reflect: the demands of the changing environment;
• theorganization’s technology; and
• employees’ skills, abilities, and preferences .

Job design – the way tasks are combined to form complete jobs.
Job scope – the number of different tasks required in a job and the
frequency with which those tasks are repeated.
Job enlargement – the horizontal expansion of a job that occurs as a result
of increasing job scope.

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 DESIGNING MOTIVATING JOBS
(CONT.)
• Job enrichment – the vertical expansion of a job that occurs as a result of
additional planning and evaluation of responsibilities .

• Job depth – the degree of control employees have over their work.
• Job enrichment increases Job depth.

• An enriched job allows workers to do an entire activity with increased

freedom, independence, and responsibility .

• Job characteristics model (JCM) (an effective framework

for managers to design motivating jobs) –
• a framework for analyzing and designing jobs that identifies five primary core job
dimensions, their interrelationships, and their impact on outcomes.

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 FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS
1. Skill variety, the degree to which a job
requires a variety of activities so that an
employee can use a number of different skills
and talents.
2. Task identity, the degree to which a job
requires completion of a whole and identifiable
piece of work.

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 FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS (CONT.)
.
3. Task significance, the degree to which a job
has a substantial impact on the lives or work of
other people.
4. Autonomy, the degree to which a job provides
substantial freedom, independence, and
discretion to the individual in scheduling the
work and determining the procedures to be
used in carrying it out.

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 FIVE CORE JOB DIMENSIONS (CONT.)
5. Feedback, the degree to which doing work activities
required by a job results in an individual obtaining direct
and clear information about the effectiveness of his or
her performance.
• If first three characteristics exist in a job, the person will
view his or her job as being important, valuable, and
worthwhile.
• jobs that possess autonomy give the jobholder a feeling
of personal responsibility for the results, and
• if a job provides feedback, the employee will know how
effectively he or she is performing.

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 EXHIBIT 16-6
JOB CHARACTERISTICS MODEL

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 REDESIGNING JOB DESIGN
APPROACHES
• Relational perspective of work design – an
approach to job design that focuses on how
people’s tasks and jobs are increasingly
based on social relationships.
• Proactive perspective of work design – an
approach to job design in which employees
take the initiative to change how their work is
performed.

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 REDESIGNING JOB DESIGN
APPROACHES (CONT.)
• High-involvement work practices – work
practices designed to elicit greater input or
involvement from workers.

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 EQUITY THEORY
DEVELOPED BY J. STACEY ADAMS

 Equity theory – the theory that an employee

compares his or her job’s input-outcome ratio with that
of relevant others and then corrects any inequity.
• Referents – the persons, systems, or selves against
which individuals compare themselves to assess equity.
• Distributive justice – perceived fairness of the amount
and allocation of rewards among individuals.
• Procedural justice – perceived fairness of the process
used to determine the distribution of rewards

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 EXHIBIT 16-7
EQUITY THEORY

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 EXPECTANCY THEORY

 Expectancy theory – the theory that an

individual tends to act in a certain way based on
the expectation that the act will be followed by a
given outcome and on the attractiveness of that
outcome to the individual.

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 EXPECTANCY THEORY (CONT.)

 Expectancy Relationships
– Expectancy (effort-performance linkage)
• The perceived probability that an individual’s effort will result
in a certain level of performance.
– Instrumentality
• The perception that a particular level of performance will
result in attaining a desired outcome (reward).
– Valence
• The attractiveness/importance of the performance reward
(outcome) to the individual.

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 EXHIBIT 16-8
EXPECTANCY MODEL

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 EXHIBIT 16-9
INTEGRATING CONTEMPORARY THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION

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 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION

 Motivating in Tough Economic Circumstances

- The economic recession of the last few years was
difficult for many organizations.
– Layoffs, tight budgets, minimal or no pay raises,
benefit cuts, no bonuses, long hours doing the work
of those who had been laid off was the reality that
many employees faced.
– As conditions deteriorated, employee confidence,
optimism, and job engagement reduced as well. As
you can imagine, it wasn’t an easy thing for
managers to keep employees motivated under such
challenging circumstances.

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 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION
(CONT.)
 Managing Cross-Cultural Motivational
Challenges
– Most current motivation theories were
developed in the United States by Americans
and about Americans.
– Managers can’t automatically assume
motivational programs that work in one
geographic location are going to work in
others.

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 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION (CONT.)
 flexible work arrangements:

Compressed workweek
• Longer daily hours, but fewer days.
– Flexible work hours (flextime)
• Specific weekly hours with varying arrival, departure, lunch and
break times around certain core hours during which all
employees must be present.
– Job Sharing
• Two or more people split a full-time job.
– Telecommuting
• Employees work from home using computer links.

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 MOTIVATING UNIQUE GROUPS OF WORKERS

 studies tell us that men place more importance on

having autonomy in their jobs than women.
 In contrast, the opportunity to learn, convenient
and flexible work hours, and good interpersonal
relations are more important to women

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 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION
(CONT.)
 Motivating Professionals
– Characteristics of professionals
• Strong and long-term commitment to their field of
expertise
• Loyalty is to their profession, not to the employer
• Have the need to regularly update their knowledge
• Don’t define their workweek as 8:00 am to 5:00
pm.
• Professionals value support. They want others to
think that what they are working on is important.
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 CURRENT ISSUES IN MOTIVATION
(CONT.)
• Motivating Contingent Workers

– Opportunity to become a permanent employee

– Opportunity for training
– Equity in compensation and benefits
• Motivating Low-Skilled, Minimum-Wage Employees
– Employee recognition programs
– Provision of sincere praise

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 DESIGNING APPROPRIATE REWARDS
PROGRAMS
• Open-book management – a motivational approach
in which an organization’s financial statements (the
“books”) are shared with all employees.
• Employee recognition programs – programs based
on personal attention and expression of interest,
approval, and appreciation for a job well done.
• Pay-for-performance programs – variable
compensation plans that pay employees on the basis
of some performance measure.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.1

• Define motivation.
– Motivation is the process by which a person’s
efforts are energized, directed, and sustained
toward attaining a goal.
• The energy element is a measure of intensity,
drive, or vigor.
• The high level of effort needs to be directed in
ways that help the organization achieve its goals.
• Employees must persist in putting forth effort to
achieve those goals.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.2
• Compare and contrast early theories of motivation.
– In Maslow’s hierarchy, individuals move up the
hierarchy of five needs (physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization).
– A Theory X manager believes people don’t like to work
or won’t seek out responsibility. A Theory Y manager
assumes people like to work and seek out
responsibility, so they will exercise self-motivation and
self-direction.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.2 (CONT.)

• Herzberg’s theory proposed that intrinsic factors

associated with job satisfaction were what
motivated people. Extrinsic factors associated
with job dissatisfaction simply kept people from
being dissatisfied.
• Three-needs theory proposed three acquired
needs that are major motives in work: need for
achievement, need for affiliation, and need for
power.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.3

• Compare and contrast contemporary

theories of motivation.
– Goal-setting theory says that specific goals increase
performance, and difficult goals, when accepted,
result in higher performance than easy goals.
– Reinforcement theory says that behavior is a
function of its consequences.
– Job enlargement involves horizontally expanding job
scope.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.3 (CONT.)

• Job enrichment vertically expands job depth by

giving employees more control over their work.
• The job characteristics model says five core job
dimensions (skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and feedback) are used to
design motivating jobs.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.3 (CONT.)

• Expectancy theory says an individual tends to

act in a certain way based on the expectation
that the act will be followed by a desired
outcome.
• Equity theory focuses on how employees
compare their inputs–outcomes ratios to
relevant others’ ratios.

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 REVIEW LEARNING OBJECTIVE 16.4

• Discuss current issues in motivation.

– Managers must cope with four current motivation
issues:
• motivating in tough economic circumstances
• managing cross-cultural challenges
• motivating unique groups of workers
• designing appropriate rewards programs

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