Manufacturing Technology-I: Welding Metallurgy

Manufacturing Technology- I
Welding Metallurgy
Pallav Chattopadhyay
14-Oct-2005
This document is a property of L&T and must not be copied or lent without their permission in writing. 1
Crystal Structure
Solid Solution
Substitutional
Interstitial
Solidification of Metal
Fe-C Diagram
Steel Structure as a function of %C
Structural Changes in 0.4%C Steel during Slow
Cooling
Typical Lamellar Pearlite
1500 X
0.25% C cooled from 870°C
Slow Cooled
Proeutectoid Ferrite +
Pearlite
Rapid Cooled
Oil Quenched
Less Proeutectoid Ferrite +

100X More Pearlite
Martensite + Ferrite +
Bainite + Pearlite
Welding Metallurgy
•Welding
– Complex Metallurgical Process involving:
• Melting
• Solidification
• Gas-metal reaction
• Slag-metal reaction
• Surface phenomenon
• Solid state reactions
•Weld Joint consists of:
– Weld metal
– Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
– Unaffected Base Metal
Macro section of Weld
Weld & HAZ
Microstructure of Low C Steel Weld Metal
This document is a property of L&T and must not be copied or lent without their permission in writing.
100 X
13
Weld Metal
• Microstructure marked different from base material

of same composition
– different thermal & mechanical histories
• Base material :
– Hot rolling – Multiple recrystallization + Heat Treatment
• Weld Metal :
– No mechanical deformation – As-solidified structure
– No time for diffusion – heterogeneous composition
– Reactions with gases in the vicinity / non-metallic liquid
phases (slag or flux) / after solidification
Weld Metal
• Solidification:
– Unmelted portion of grains in HAZ act as nucleation site
– Metals grow more rapidly in certain crystallographic
directions
– Favorably oriented grains grow for substantial distance -
growth of others blocked by faster growing grains -
columnar grains
Weld Metal
• Solidification:
– Micro-segregation of alloying and residual elements –
formation of Dendrites
– Solidification of primary dendrites – more soluble solutes
in liquid rejected – freezing point lowered
Weld Metal
• Solidification:
– Concentration of solute near solid-liquid interface – arrest
crystal growth
– Many dendrites grow simultaneously into liquid from
single grain
– Same crystal orientation – part of same grain
– Weld structure appears coarse at low magnification
– Fine dendritic structure at high magnification
– Spacing between dendritic arms – measure of alloy
segregation – determined by rate of solidification
Typical Columnar Structure
Ingot
Weld Metal
Weld Metal
• Gas-Metal reactions:
– Depends on presence of O2, H2 or N2
– O2 – Comes from Shielding gas / Air
– N2 – Comes from Air
– H2 – Comes from Flux / coating / atmosphere / base metal
Weld Metal
– Ferrous Material:
• Diatomic gas molecule breaks down at high temp & dissolve in steel
• O2 Reacts with de-oxidizers like Mn, Si, Al - Oxides taken out in
form of slag
• Porosity (CO/CO2) formation in case of insufficient de-oxidizer
• N2 content much lesser compared to O2 content – raises transition
temp / introduces embrittlement & strain-ageing
• H2 always present in arc atmosphere
• Atomic hydrogen creates porosity
• Dissolved hydrogen creates cracking tendency
Weld Metal
– Non-Ferrous Material:
• Solution, reaction & evolution of hydrogen or water vapor
• Al & Mg alloys: H2 introduces in weld metal from work piece /
filler wire (present as hydrated oxides on the surface)
• Cu & Ni Alloys: H2 reacts with O2 and form porosity – add
deoxidizer in filler wire
• Ti & Alloys: Embrittlement with N2, H2 & O2
: Weldment require inert gas protection till 260°C
: Surface appearance indicates effectiveness of shielding
: H2 major cause of porosity
Weld Metal
• Liquid-Metal reactions:
– Non-metallic liquid phases (e.g. Al-Mn-Fe silicates)
produced – Slag
– Hot cracking:
• Inter-dendritic liquid - substantially lower freezing temp than
previously solidified base metal
• Presence of S, P, Pb
• Mn:S ratio of >=30 for C-Mn & LAS
• Presence of Delta Ferrite in microstructure for Austenitic SS
• P tends to segregate readily – cause harmful ‘banding’
Weld Metal
• Solid State reactions:

– Strengthening mechanisms
• Solidification grain structure
– Rapid freezing creating segregation / dendrites in each grain
– Impeded plastic flow during Tensile test – Higher YS / UTS ratio
• Solid Solution Strengthening
– Alloy additions
– Substitutional / Interstitial
• Precipitation hardening
– Strengthening by ageing process after welding
– Presence of over-aged weld metal
– Not same level of strength as base metal
Weld Metal
– Strengthening mechanisms
• Transformation hardening
– Formation of harder structure / Martensite
– Formation of fine Ferrite – Carbide aggregate
Weld Metal
– Delayed / Cold Cracking
• Solubility / Diffusivity decreases drastically during solidification
• Atomic H try to escape – settles in lattice imperfections
• Molecular H2 formed -Tremendous internal pressure created
• Hardened structure
• Dissolved hydrogen in weld metal
– Preheat to slower the cooling rate
– Use of low hydrogen consumables
Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron
Diffusivity of Hydrogen in Iron
Weld Metal Solidification
HEAT FLOW
 Columnar Grains
 Partitioning / Segregation
 Gas Entrapment - Solubility Drop
 Oxidation - De-oxidation Product
 Shrinkage - Residual Stresses
 EFFECTS
 Low Ductility
 Inhomogeneous Structure
 PROPERTIES
 Coarse Grains - Low Impacts
 Inclusions - Low Impacts
 H2 Entrapment - Cracking
 Residual Stresses - Distortion
Multi-pass Welds
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
• Adjacent to the base material
• Portion of base material
– Not melted
– Microstructure altered
– Mechanical properties changed
• C-Mn steel : Above ~700°C
• Heat treated steel: Above 315°C
• Heat treated Al alloy: Above 120°C
• Strength & Toughness depends on Type of base metal,

welding process & welding parameters (Heat input)
• Effect of welding parameters depends on types of
alloys:
1. Solid Solution Strengthened Alloys:
• Hot rolled Low C steel, Al alloys, Cu alloys, Austenitic & Ferritic SS
• Least HAZ problem – largely unaffected by welding
• Grain growth only few grains wide – no major effect on mech prop.

alloys:
2. Strain Hardened Base Metal:
• Recrystalize while heating above Recrystallization temp
• Steel, Ti & other alloys show allotropic transformation

• Two recrystallized zones – Recrystallization of Cold worked Alpha
phase & Allotropic transformation to High temp phase
alloys:
3. Precipitation Hardened Alloys:
• HAZ undergoes an Annealing cycle – lowers strength
• Relatively soft single phase solid solution with coarse grains near
fusion line– can be hardened by post weld ageing treatment
• Next to this region – below Solution treatment temp – overageing –
post weld ageing do not have any effect
Transformation Hardening Alloys
Transformation Hardening Alloys
• Width of HAZ & width of each region controlled by

heat input
• Hardness of HAZ – function of base metal ‘C’ content
• Different hardness level if preheated / post heated
Weld Metal vs. Base Metal
WLED METAL BASE METAL
1. Columnar Grain Polygonal Equiaxed
2. Segregation Homogeneous
3. Oxides - Sulphide
Inclusions Steel Making Process Benefits
4. Solidified Structure Rolled / Forged
Structure
5. Limitations On Heat Proper Heat Treatment
Treatment
6. Entrapped Gases No Entrapments
7. Different _________
Hardenability
8. Different Thermal Uniform Heat Treatment Cycles
Cycles
9. Weld Defects Higher __________
Chances
Weld Thermal Cycle
LIQUID
1500
1200
RT 1000
O
C 900
600
t 8/5
300
t 100
TIME
RT-1000 : Retention Above 1000°C
Consequences
 Increase In Hardenability
Higher Dissolution Of Alloying Elements WELD
 Fusion Line Max Effect
 Base Metal Chemistry FUSION LINE
B. M.
 Very High Temperature
 No Benefits Of Weld Chemistry Control
 Fastest Cooling Rates
 Grain Coarsening
Effects
 Hardness, Ductility & Toughness
 Loss Of B.M. Heat Treatment In ‘HAZ’ (QT, NR, Solution Anneal)
 Lower Delta Ferrite Retention In Austenitic Stainless Steel
 Coarse Grains - Lower Room Temperature Strength
t8-5 & t100
t8-5
Time To Cool From 800 – 500°c
Lower Value  Faster Cooling Rate
 Harder Structures
Affecting Parameters  Base Metal Thickness / Joint Confg.

 Heat Input
 Preheat / Inter Pass
t100
Time To Cool To 100°c
Longer Times  Increased Hydrogen Diffusion
 Reduced Probability Of Cold Cracking
Affecting Parameters  B.M. Thickness / Joint

 Heat Input
 Preheat / Interpass
 Post Heat
Effect of Heat Input, Geometry & Preheat
on Cooling Rate
Effect of Weld Size on Cooling Rate
Higher Travel Speed  greater

portion of energy input utilized in
forming weld bead & less in heating
adjacet area  higher cross sectional
area of weld metal / penetrtaion
Preheat
• Heating of weldment to a minimum predefined temp
before start of welding and maintaining the same
during welding
– To reduce cooling rate of weldment – softer structure
– To avoid cracking
– To reduce distortion
– To remove Oil, Moisture etc
• Increases with increasing thickness
• Must be maintained at least 2” on either side of joint
• Very critical for high strength / alloyed materials
• Required for mainly Ferritic materials
• Not required for Austenitic steel
Typical Preheat Temperature
Interpass Temperature
• Maximum allowed temperature in the weldment in

between two subsequent passes
– Reduces grain coarsening in Ferritic steel– better impact
toughness
– Reduces chance of IGC in Austenitic SS
• Typical Interpass temp:
– C-Mn Steel : 275°C
– Low Alloy steel : 250°C
– Austenitic SS : 175-200°C
Effect of Preheat / Interpass Temp
De Hydrogenation Treatment (DHT)
• Holding at 300-400°C for 2-6hrs after welding and

before cooling down to room temperature
• Allows Hydrogen to diffuse out (higher diffusivity at
high temp) from weldment and reduce chance of
Hydrogen cracking
• Required mainly for Low Alloy Steel (e.g. Cr-Mo, Cr-
Mo-V steel) and QT steel
• For highly restrained joint, DHT is replaced by an
Intermediate Stress Relieving (ISR) at 620-660°C/2-
4hrs
PWHT / Stress Relieving
• Normally below Tempering temp

• Both mechanical & metallurgical effect in Steel
• To relieve locked-up stresses
• Tempered structure in some of the Steels
• Both beneficial & detrimental effects on properties
PWHT / Stress Relieving
• Larson Miller Parameter (LMP) =

– T (20 + Log10 t), where T = Tempering Temp in °K &
t = Tempering time in ‘hrs’
References
• Welding Handbook – AWS – Volume-1 (Pg: 90-92, 103-111)

• Weldability of Steels – R D Stout – WRC (Pg. 48-52, 84-103,
105-108)
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Manufacturing Technology- I

Less Proeutectoid Ferrite +

• Microstructure marked different from base material

• Solid State reactions:

• Strength & Toughness depends on Type of base metal,

• Effect of welding parameters depends on types of

• Steel, Ti & other alloys show allotropic transformation

• Width of HAZ & width of each region controlled by

Affecting Parameters  Base Metal Thickness / Joint Confg.

Affecting Parameters  B.M. Thickness / Joint

Higher Travel Speed  greater

• Maximum allowed temperature in the weldment in

• Holding at 300-400°C for 2-6hrs after welding and

• Normally below Tempering temp

• Larson Miller Parameter (LMP) =

• Welding Handbook – AWS – Volume-1 (Pg: 90-92, 103-111)

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