wollo university

Department of Chemical Engineering

Food Engineering Stream

Course Name: Food Process Technology I

Course Code: Cheg5241

Prepared by Abebe T. (MSc in Food process Engineering)

 Question

 What is food?

 why you are consuming the food?

describe the types of food products?

 Discus the food preservation methods?

 CHAPTER ONE

Introduction of Food Technology

Overviews Food
Food: is one of the basic needs of the human being.

It is required for the normal functioning of the body parts and for
a healthy growth.

 is any substance, composed of carbohydrates, water, fats and/or

proteins, that is either eaten or drunk by any animal, including
humans, for nutrition or pleasure.

Source: from plants, animals or another kingdom such as

fungus.

Humans and animals consume food either in a raw, a processed, or a

formulated form for growth, health, and satisfaction.
Food science is a study concerned with all technical aspects
of food, beginning with harvesting or slaughtering, and
ending with its cooking and consumption.

 Food science is a highly interdisciplinary applied science.

It incorporates with different fields including microbiology,

food chemistry, food engineering, and many others.
 Sub disciplines of food science include:

 Food processing - the set of methods and techniques used to

transform raw ingredients into food or to transform food into
other forms for consumption by humans or animals.

Food safety - the causes, prevention and communication

dealing with foodborne illness

 Food microbiology – deals about the positive and negative

interactions between microorganisms and foods.

 Food preservation - the causes and prevention of quality

degradation.
Sensory analysis - the study of how food is perceived by the
consumer's senses (aroma, flavor, texture, oiliness, etc.).

 Food chemistry - the molecular composition of food and

the involvement of these molecules in chemical reactions.

 Food packaging - the study of how packaging is used to

preserve food after processed and contain it through
distribution.

Food physics - the physical aspects of foods (such as

viscosity, creaminess, crumbliness, color, and texture).
Food engineering - the industrial processes used to manufacture food.

 Food engineers develop and design processes and equipment to

convert raw agricultural materials into safe, convenient, nutritious food
products.

 In the development of design and equipment , one of the many

challenges is to employ modern tools and knowledge like,

 improving food quality,

 improving food safety, and

 improving food security continues to be a critical issue in food

engineering studies.
 New packaging materials and techniques are being developed to provide more
protection to foods.

 Novel preservation technologies are emerging to enhance food security and

defense.

 Process control and automation regularly appear among the top priorities
identified in food engineering.

 Advanced monitoring and control systems are developed to facilitate

automation and flexible food manufacturing. Like

energy saving

minimization of environmental problems (waste management),

efficient utilization of energy

 reduction of effluents in food production.

 The Food Industry Today

The aims of the food industry today, as in the past, are four fold:

To extend the period during which a food remains wholesome (the shelf
life) by preservation techniques which inhibit microbiological or
biochemical changes and thus allow time for distribution, sales and home
storage.

To increase variety in the diet by providing a range of attractive flavours,

colours, aromas and textures in food (collectively known as eating quality,
sensory characteristics or organoleptic quality);

To provide the nutrients required for health (termed nutritional quality of a
food).

 To generate income for the manufacturing company.

 Physical Properties of Food Materials

The physical properties of foods are of utmost interest to the

food engineer, mainly for two reasons:

Many of the characteristics that define the quality (e.g.

texture, structure, appearance) and stability (e.g. water
activity) of a food product are linked to its physical
properties.

Quantitative knowledge of many of the physical properties,

such as thermal conductivity, density, viscosity, specific heat,
enthalpy and many others.
 Chapter Two
Cereals processing technology
 Overviews of Cereal crops

Cereal Crop

Cereal is plant which yield edible grains.

Cereals are staples and are consumed in large quantity by majority of

population in the world either directly or in modified form.

Cereal grain provide the world with the majority of its food calories

and protein. they are also good source of micro nutrients calcium, iron

and vitamin B groups.

Maize, grain sorghum, and millet are known as cereal crops, along with

rice, wheat, barley, oats, teff and rye.
Cereals and cereal products are an important source of

 Energy, carbohydrate, protein and fiber,

 micronutrients such as vitamin E, some of the B vitamins,

magnesium and zinc in the everyday human diet through direct
human consumption.

 Generally, cereals are composed of about 10%–15% moisture,

55%–71% carbohydrate, 8%–11% protein, 2%–5% fat, and 2%–9%
fiber;

 while milling hull, bran and germ of cereal grains are separated,
removing indigestible fiber as well as fat.
Why the cereals are so dominant in the food
sector?
The cereals are a versatile and reliable source of
food.
They are easy to store and may be used to produce
a countless of food products.
Cereals processing thus forms a large and
important part of the food production chain.
It also plays a lesser, but no less important role in
the non-food sector.
Maize (corn)
The crop is grown in climates ranging from
temperate to tropical.
Maize is traditionally a feed grain and this continues
to be an important use.
Corn grits are used in the manufacture of breakfast
cereals, and
Cornstarch is used as a thickener in food products.
Corn syrups are used as sweeteners in processed food
and drinks.
Maize is processed for human consumption and other industrial uses
by either wet or dry milling, depending on the desired end products.

Wet millers process corn into

high-fructose corn syrup Dry millers process corn
(HFCS), into
glucose and dextrose, flakes for cereal,
corn flour,
starch, corn grits,
corn oil, corn meal and brewers’ grits
industrial alcohol and fuel for beer production
ethanol.
Sorghum
It is an important crop and the main food grain in parts
of Africa, Asia, India/Pakistan and China, where it forms
a large part of the human diet, but it is grown to a greater
or lesser extent in all continents.
Uses
Porridge or gruel, sorghum meal or flour can be used in
noodles, breads and other fermented products.
 It is also the main or only constituent of the feedstock
for malting for production of alcoholic and other
beverages.
Oats

Several species of the oat genus Avena are cultivated but the common
is white oat (Avena sativa) is by far the most widely grown.

It is a cool season crop grown for both animal feed and human food.

Uses

The majority of oats are used for feed, but in some countries, breakfast
cereals, including porridge, made from oats are popular.

 In recent years the health-promoting benefits of some of the complex

carbohydrates that are more abundant in oats than in other cereal grains
have led to the promotion of oats as a ‘health food’.
Barley

Barley is a cool-season grass with worldwide

distribution.

Barley is used principally as feed but it is also the

cereal grain most used in production of malt.

Protein content is an important factor but, whereas for

many cereals a high-protein level is desirable,

But, for malting the requirement is for a relatively low-

protein content.
 The cereal processing industry

 The cereal processing industry may be described as

any industry that takes a cereal or a cereal product as
its raw material.
 Malt barley

 Barley is commonly used for malting in many countries.

Other grains such as wheat, and sorghum also used to a limited

extent in the preparation of malting of cereal grains consists of the

following steps:

(1) selection of the grain and cleaning,

(2) steeping of the grain in water,

(3) germination of the steeped grain in trays or drums,

(4) controlled slow drying of the germinated grain (kilning) and

(5) removal of rootlets by cleaning on wire mesh.

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 Selection of the grain and cleaning:

The grain should be of good quality and free from infestation.

The seed selected should have high germination capacity.

The gain is cleaned of all impurities and

 graded to remove under size grains.

Steeping

 The grain is steeped in cold water for 36 hours in warm climate with
two or three changes of water.

The steeping may have to be for longer periods (48 to 72 hours) in cold
climates

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 Germination

 The germination is allowed to proceed for 3 days in a warm

climate.

 In colder climate, longer periods may be required for

germination (4-6 days).

The grains are mixed up once in 24 hours and water is

sprinkled over them.

The room in which the trays are kept is aerated by blowing

moist air at a slow rate.

During germination, amylases and proteinases are formed.

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 Kilning
 Kilning is the heating of germinated barley to dry it and develop malty.

Kilning thus reduces the grain moisture content and stops the

germination process.

Efficient kilning consists of drying the germinated grain at a slow rate.

 During slow drying, the amylases act on starch hydrolyzing it to

dextrin (a group of low-molecular-weight carbohydrates produced by the

hydrolysis of starch) and proteases act on proteins hydrolyzing them to

proteases and peptones.

The malt is dried to a moisture content of about 13 %

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 Brewing:

 The steps involved in the preparation of beer from malt are as follows:
1. Mashing of powdered malt with gelatinized wheat flour in water at hot
temperature.

 In order to activate the enzymes that convert grain into simple sugar, the mash
temperature must be between 145°F and 158°F)

2. Filtration and clarification of the wort (extract) also called Lautering process.

3. Addition of hops to wort and boiling (wort boils above 212 °F (100 °C) .

4. Cooling of wort and fermentation of wort by yeast at controlled temperature

(46-52oF)

5. Filtration and storage of beer and

6. Pasteurization, bottling and carbonation

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Flow diagram beer processing

28
Wheat:

Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its seed, a cereal grain

which is a worldwide staple food.

 Wheat is a single-seeded fruit and 4- to 10-mm long.

 Wheat is unique as a source of the gluten proteins that alone

have the dough-forming properties needed to make the variety

of foods.

 Dough is used to make leavened breads, pasta, noodles,

biscuits, cakes, macaroni, pastries and various food ingredients.

 Wheat types
 There are two distinct varieties of wheat soft and hard.

• Hardness is related to the degree of adhesion between the starch

granules and surrounding protein.

“Soft” refers to wheat with a low gluten content.

 “hard” refers to wheat with a high gluten content.

The gluten in flours made with hard wheat give bread dough more
elasticity, which results in bread that holds shape when baked.

Soft flour, with its lower gluten content, yields bread with a fine and easily
crumbled texture.

 These flours are commonly used for cakes and pastries, or mixed with
hard flour to produce softer bread.
The degree of mechanical damage to starch granules produced
during milling is greater for hard wheat than for soft wheat.

 Wheats yielding flour which has the ability to produce the bread
of large loaf volume, good crumb texture and good keeping
qualities generally has high protein content and these types
are called as strong wheats.

 Whereas the wheat yielding flour from which only a small

loaf volume with coarse open crumb texture having low protein
content are generally categorized as weak flour / weak wheat.

 The flour from the weak wheat is ideal for biscuits and cakes.
The Wheat Kernel

 Each tiny seed contains three distinct parts that are separated during the milling process

to produce flour. 

 Endosperm

It covers about 83% of the kernel weight and the source of white flour.

The endosperm contains the greatest share of protein, carbohydrates, and iron

It contain major B-vitamins, such as riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine.

 Bran

It covers about 14% of the kernel weight.

The outer layers are all parts of the bran.

The bran contains a small amount of protein, trace minerals, and dietary fiber (primarily

insoluble).
 Germ

about 2.5% of the kernel weight.

The germ is the embryo or sprouting section of the

seed.

It is often separated from flour because the fat content

(10%) limits shelf life.

The germ contains minimal quantities of high quality

protein and a greater share of B-complex vitamins and
trace minerals.
 Wheat Quality

 Wheat quality refers to the performance of grain to meet the requirements of

its use in flour milling, breads, noodles, cereals, pasta or animal feed. 

Wheat Composition
• Carbohydrate 70%
• Protein 9-15%
• Fat 2-2.2%
• Fiber 2-2.5
• Ash 1.8 %
• Moisture 9-13%

 Results from these tests have a direct relationship to finished product quality.
To meet these specifications, wheat and flour quality testing is

necessary.

 Specifications for moisture content, ash content, protein content, and

Carbohydrate are determined with basic tests.

 Physical tests included in this book are conducted to determine flour

color and wheat kernel characteristics specified by wheat processors.

 The laboratory milling test is used to evaluate the milling performance

of wheat and to produce flour for other laboratory tests.

Wheat and flour specifications often require specialized testing to

determine how flour will perform during processing.

 Milling

 Milling is the process by which cereal grains are ground into

flour.

The milling of Wheat consists in the separation of bran and germ

from the endosperm and reduction of endosperm to fine flour.

Various steps are involved in making the wheat flour.

To produce a high yield of white flour, the miller has to remove
the embryo and the bran layers cleanly from the starchy
endosperm.
 The objective of wheat milling is to grind cleaned and tempered
wheat by separating the outer husk from the internal endosperm.

 Early processing of wheat was accomplished by means of hand

grinding, grinding stones, or a mortar and pestle.

 Later on wheat was milled between two circular millstones, one

fixed and the other mobile and rotating.

 Recent technology of wheat milling involves metal cylinders or

rollers for milling purposes.
Flour millers adjust the moisture in wheat to a standard level before
milling.

Moisture content of 14% is commonly used as a conversion factor for

other tests in which the results are affected by moisture content.

Moisture is also an indicator of grain storability.

Wheat or flour with high moisture content (over 14.5%) attracts mold,
bacteria, and insects, all of which cause deterioration during storage.

Wheat or flour with low moisture content is more stable during

storage. Moisture content can be an indicator of profitability in milling.
Cleaning

 The first milling steps involve equipment that separates wheat

from seeds and other grains, eliminates foreign materials such as
metal, sticks, stones and grass and wheat defected by insects.

Benefits of Pre-Cleaning
Improve sanitation and dust control.
Decrease microbial growth.
 Improves flow of grain through the bin.
Increases storage life of grain.

 It can take as many as six steps.

 Conditioning / tempering

Tempering is the process of adding water to wheat before

milling to toughen the bran and mellow the endosperm of the
kernel. 

 Thus improve the efficiency of flour extraction.

 Why is it necessary to add water to the wheat?
 Mellowing of the endosperm
Flour extraction can be increased
Power consumption / noise level of the Roller mills reduced
Toughening of the bran
Bran tends to break up less and remains in larger pieces.
Large bran flakes can effectively be cleaned by the fluted rolls
Less bran specks in the Flour
 Adjustment of the Flour moisture content
 Constant moisture level = constant milling conditions
Constant moisture level = constant baking conditions
Profitability for the Miller
Grinding (Milling)

 Milling process is a gradual reduction of the wheat kernels to produce

particles of endosperm

 Endosperm are then graded & separated from the bran by sieves &
purifiers.

 Each size returns to corresponding rollers & the same process is repeated
until the desired flour is obtained.

Main objectives of wheat milling

To separate endosperm from bran.

To reduce dimension of endosperm particles for fine flour particles.

 Up to 6 different sizes of particles may come from a single sifter, including
some flour with each sifting.
 Larger particles are shaken off from the top, or "scalped," leaving the finer
flour to sift to the bottom
 These fractions are sent to other roll passages
 Functional Properties of Flour

Functional properties of flour are measurable characteristics

that are predictably to the secondary processing of flour.

1. Ash Content and Color

2. Protein

 Proteins are the principal factors of wheat quality.

 Bread-making quality depends on the quality and quantity of

wheat proteins.

When flour mix with water, the gluten protein form a sticky
network that has glue like consistency.
 Gluten provides the viscoelastic properties to the
dough, which is very important for baking.
The elastic and plastic mass from protein fractions
(gliadin and glutenin) during flour mixing water is a
reliable indicator of flour strength.
But, this protein causes problem for peoples with
certain health conditions (celiac disease, gluten
sensitivity, allergen and others)
3. Flour Strength and Flour Stream Properties

Flour strength is an important property for the

purposes of bread baking.
 Dough Mixing

The aim is to mix the fundamental ingredients (flour,

water, salt, yeast, sugar, etc.) to be a homogenous dough.

The dough will be smooth and elastic.

 Some of the gluten develops during the mixing.

When water is added to the flour with mixing, the

protein matrix becomes gradually hydrated, form the
gluten strands visible in.
The main ingredients determine the dough.

The flour, with high protein content has more gluten

potential.

 Liquids are hydrated the solids and important in the

gelatinization.

 The salt controls the yeast growth, because, without salt

the fermentation will be to rapid.

 The yeast is the biological leaving agent.

As gas bubbles develop in the dough due to yeast
action.

 the consistency of the dough must be elastic enough to

trap the bubbles (preventing them just rising to the
surface) and viscous enough to allow the gas bubbles to
expand during baking, to provide a well expanded
crumb and a large loaf volume.
Several tests evaluate dough and gluten

Farinograph and Mixograph: measure the resistance of dough

to mixing.

 Estimate the amount of water required for dough (absorption)

 Flour uniformity

 Arrival time (rate of water taken by flour)

 Mixing tolerance index ( degree of softening during mixing)

 peak time (water added to reach maximum consistency)

Extensigraph : measures the resistance of dough to stretching.

 Measure the force required to stretch the dough until to break

 Measure the extensibility of dough (length of the dough before break

(mm)

Alveograph : measures the resistance of a bubble of dough to expansion.

 Determine the gluten strength by measuring the force required to blow

and break the bubble of dough.

The starch properties of flour are measured by the amylograph and the
rapid visco analyzer tests.

 Measure flour and water pest.

 Fermentation
 After the mixing and kneading, we allow the dough with yeast to rest.

 yeast acts on the sugars and starches in the dough (Fermentation

process).

 This is the, where alcohol (ethanol) and carbon dioxide gas produce.

 The yeast converts the sugar to carbon dioxide that enables dough volume
expansion.

 In the same time the pH decreases and the enzymes change the
characteristics of dough (the gluten) to allow more gas retention.

 the structural and rheological properties the dough will be changed (soft
and expanded).
Bread making
 Pasta production

 Pasta is popular because it…

 Is nutritious
 Is convenient to buy and prepare
 Has a long shelf life

 Semolina preferential to other flours for its

 Particle size
 High protein content of 13-14% .
 The manufacture of pasta includes dry macaroni, noodle,
and spaghetti production.
86
 Mixing

Pasta products are produced by mixing milled wheat,

water, and sometimes optional ingredients.

 The flour and water is sent through a high pressure pre-

mixer to hydrate the mixture.

 Warm water (45-60°C) is added to bring the moisture

content of the dough to 28-32%.

 Spaghetti requires 16-18 minutes in the mixing chamber .

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Extrusion

 Extrusion (from the Latin word extruder) means the action of

pushing out.

 In engineering, it describes an operation of forcing a material

out of a narrow gap.

Extrusion is a process that converts raw material into a product

with desired shape and form by forcing the material through a
small opening using pressure.

The process involves a series of unit operations such as mixing,

kneading, shearing, heating, cooling, shaping and forming.
88
 Functions that an extruder can provide

• Texture Alteration

• Thermal Treatment

• Partial Dehydration

• Homogenization

• Gelatinization

89
Drying

 Drying is the most difficult and critical step to control in the pasta
production process.

 The objective of drying is to lower the moisture content of the pasta

so that the finished product will be hard, retain its shape, and store
without spoiling.

 Most pasta drying operations use a preliminary drier immediately

after extrusion to prevent the pasta from sticking together.

 Predrying hardens the outside surface of the pasta while keeping the
inside soft and plastic.

 A final drier is then used to remove most of the moisture from the
product. 90
Packaging

 Packaging keeps the product free from contamination

Used to protects the pasta from damage during shipment and

storage.

Many manufacturers utilize boxes instead of bags to package

pasta because,

 boxes are easy to stack,

 provide good protection for fragile pasta products, and

offer the opportunity to print advertising that is easier to read

than on bags.
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 Soft wheat products
Soft wheat

• The gluten contents is low.

• Soft wheat has much lower extraction rate.

• The soft wheat have ales compact starch, proteins complex

with results in less starch damage and low water absorption.

• The protein level of soft wheat is usually lower, producing less

resistant more extensible dough.

• Soft wheats, containing approximately 8–12 percent protein,

produce flours that are suitable for products requiring minimal
structure, such as cakes, and cookies (sweet biscuits).
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Biscuit processing