COLLEGEOF

CONCEPTS PHYSICS
BIOLOGY
Chapter
Chapter # Chapter Title
2 CHEMISTRY OF LIFE
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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
These are the concepts on which you need to focus for this chapter. The
important concepts, Learning Objectives are posted at the beginning of each
module.
From Chp. 2 you will learn:
• To identify and describe the major molecules in living organisms
• To describe and define the terms ‘matter’ and ‘elements’
• To describe the structure of an atom
• To identify and describe the relationships between atoms (chemical
bonds)
• To identify and describe pH and state the consequences to living
organisms when pH changes.
• To define and describe the properties of water that make it a
requirement for life.
• To describe the ways carbon is critical to life.
• Identify and describe the major organic molecules in living organisms
• Identify the major organic molecules that contribute to disease in
humans.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 1: DESCRIBE AND DEFINE THE TERMS ‘MATTER’ AND ‘ELEMENTS’

This is a periodic table that lists

and describes the basic elements
of matter. The position and
numbers give you a lot of
information about each element.

Figure 2.3
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 2: DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE OF
AN ATOM

Atomic number –

Atomic mass -

Figure 2.2

Atoms are the smallest components of a matter. It is made up of:

• Protons
• Neutrons
• Electrons –
• A neutral atom has no charge so the number of protons equal the
electrons
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3: IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ATOMS (CHEMICAL BONDS)
• The number of electrons in the
outer orbits
Donor Acceptor

• If outer the orbit is full

Figure 2.5
• If the outer orbit is not full

• Bonds between the atoms

• If atom the gives up an electron

• If atom that accepts the electron. Positive Negative

Elements tend to fill their outermost
shells with electrons. To do this, they
can either donate or accept electrons
from other elements.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3: IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ATOMS (CHEMICAL BONDS)

Ionic bonds – a bond formed

between between two ions with
an opposite charge.

• Electrons are NOT SHARED.

One atom will keep the
electron from the donor
atom.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3: IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ATOMS (CHEMICAL BONDS)

Most bonds in living organisms are covalent or hydrogen bonds.

• Covalent Bonds –

• Polar Covalent bonds –

• Non-polar Covalent Bond –

Figure 2.6

The water molecule (left) depicts a polar bond with a slightly positive charge on the
hydrogen atoms and a slightly negative charge on the oxygen. Examples of nonpolar
bonds include methane (middle) and oxygen (right).
LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3: IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE THE
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ATOMS (CHEMICAL BONDS)
• A hydrogen bond is a weak attraction between the positive part of
one molecule and a negative part of another.

Water Figure 2.7

H = δ+
O = (δ–)

Hydrogen bonds form between slightly positive (δ+) and slightly negative (δ–) charges
of polar covalent molecules, such as water.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES 3: IDENTIFY AND DESCRIBE
THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ATOMS (CHEMICAL
BONDS)

In a van der Waals interaction the atoms between 2 molecules align

between polar ends of the molecule but do not interact
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4 : DEFINE AND DESCRIBE THE
PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT A REQUIREMENT
FOR LIFE.

Figure 2.8

• Like molecules dissolve like molecules.

• Because water is a polar covalent molecule, it will not dissolve non-
polar molecules like oil.

As this macroscopic image of oil and water show, oil is a nonpolar compound
and, hence, will not dissolve in water. Oil and water do not mix.
(credit: Gautam Dogra)
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4 : DEFINE AND DESCRIBE THE
PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT A REQUIREMENT
FOR LIFE.

Water makes an
excellent solvent for
polar molecules

Figure 2.10
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4 : DEFINE AND DESCRIBE THE
PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT A REQUIREMENT
FOR LIFE.
 LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4 : DEFINE AND DESCRIBE THE
PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT A REQUIREMENT
FOR LIFE.

Figure 2.9

Water Stabilizes temperatures.

(credit a: modification of work by Jane Whitney; credit b: modification of work by Carlos Ponte )
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 4 : DEFINE AND DESCRIBE
THE PROPERTIES OF WATER THAT MAKE IT A
REQUIREMENT FOR LIFE.
Learning Objective 4 : define and describe the properties of
water that make it a requirement for life.

FIGURE 2.11

Example – Water forms

droplets. It does not spread
over the surface unless the
surface tension is broken.
 Learning Objective 5 : Identify and describe pH and state the
consequences to living organisms when pH changes.

The pH scale measures the

More OH- amount of hydrogen ions (H+) in a
substance.

More H+ FIGURE 2.12

(credit: modification of work by Edward Stevens)

Learning objective 5 : identify and describe pH and state
the consequences to living organisms when ph changes.
Extreme changes in pH denature proteins.

=
Learning objective 5 : identify and describe pH and
state the consequences to living organisms when ph
changes.

Carbonic acid vs Bicarbonate

Learning Objective 6: Describe the ways carbon is critical to

life.

• Carbon can form four covalent bonds to create an

organic molecule. The simplest carbon molecule is
methane (CH4), depicted here.
• The ability to form 4 covalent bonds to oxygen,
nitrogen or hydrogen makes carbon a very
versatile molecule. More versatile than many other
FIGURE 2.13
atoms.
Learning Objective 6: Describe the ways carbon is critical to

life.

These examples show three molecules

(found in living organisms) that contain
carbon atoms bonded in various ways to
other carbon atoms and the atoms of other
elements.
(a) This molecule of stearic acid has a long
chain of carbon atoms.
FIGURE 2.14
(b) Glycine, a component of proteins,
contains carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and
hydrogen atoms. It has a central carbon
to which other components of an amino
acid are bound.
(c) Glucose, a sugar, has a ring of carbon
atoms and one oxygen atom.
Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms

• Carbohydrates are long chains

of carbon rings that have the Carbohydrates
chemical formula of CH2O

• In their simplest form they are as

single ring Monosaccharide such
as glucose.

• Many monosaccharides bound

together are polysaccharides
such as starch

• ‘carbs’ -
• end in ‘ose’ -
Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms

Not all carbohydrates are

used for energy by living
organisms. FIGURE 2.16
• Glycogen

• Cellulose

• Chitin

Although their structures and functions differ, all polysaccharide carbohydrates are
made up of monosaccharides and have the chemical formula (CH 2O)n.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE 8: IDENTIFY THE MAJOR ORGANIC
MOLECULES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO DISEASE IN HUMANS.

• Obesity in the US is
increasing even among
children even in California.
• This points to a high
genetic contribution to this
disorder.
Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms

Solid at room temp. FIGURE 2.18

Lipids are energy storage molecules
also used for insulation.

Liquid at room temp.

• Lipids are nonpolar and do not

dissolve in water. They are
hydrophobic.

• Lipids function as :
Lipids include fats, such as triglycerides,
which are made up of fatty acids and
glycerol, phospholipids, and steroids.
Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms
Triglycerides

During the hydrogenation

process of margarine,
shortening, the orientation
around the double bonds is
changed, making a trans-fat from
a cis-fat.
Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms
Proteins are the most abundant macromolecule
in living systems. They also have more
functions than other macromolecules.
They are made of amino acids.

Tryptophan

FIGURE 2.20
Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms

The four levels of protein structure can

be observed in these illustrations.
Structure -

Denature

Functions -

Polypeptide –

Protein -

(credit: modification of work by National Human Genome FIGURE 2.21

Research Institute)
 Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms

There are 2 major types of Nucleic Acids in living organisms:

• DNA –

• RNA –

• Nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides

FIGURE 2.22
 Learning Objective 7: Identify and describe the major
molecules in living organisms

DNA is the molecule of heredity. Your DNA sequence is

what you pass on to your children. FIGURE 2.23

• Your DNA is what makes you unique and is your

most personal form of identification.

The double-helix model shows DNA as two anti - parallel strands of intertwining
molecules. (credit: Jerome Walker, Dennis Myts)