What we did last time…

 KERMA
 Absorbed Dose

1
Ways to Get a Dose
inhalation
alpha

beta
ingestion
lead
gamma

neutron

External Internal
2
[3] Dose from External
Radiation (, , n)
First we will look at gamma dose

3
 Specific Gamma Ray Emission
  = Specific Gamma Ray Constant
 Consider the energy absorbed per unit mass
of air at a specified distance from a point
source:
 
f i  / t  E i MeV /  1.6 106 erg / MeV  3.7 1010 dps / Ci  3600 s / hr   m 1
 
4    1 m    kg / m 3  87.7 erg / g / R 
2

 fi is the fraction of transformations that yield

a photon with energy Ei
 μ is the linear energy absorption coefficient
 Has been calculated for many gamma ray
emitting isotopes
 Can ‘easily’ be calculated
 Where does this come from?
4
Specific Gamma Ray Constant

 Assumes that the absorption of photons in

air is constant over a large range
 Absorption is almost constant from 60 keV to
almost 2 MeV (see next slide)
 Assumes photons isotropic, no ‘buildup’
 Buildup will be discussed later
 Eliminates many constants for ease of
calculation

5
 In air

3.5x10-3

Figure 5.20 (Cember, pg. 181) or see

Table 5.4 (Cember pg. 182)
 Specific Gamma Ray Constant
 3.5  10-3 mlinear energy
absorption coefficient
 Combine terms to get 0.5 value

6 erg 10 dps 1 s
1.6  10  3.7 10  0.0035 m  3600
MeV Ci hr
erg
  g
4    1 m  1293 3  87.7
2

m R
g

0.5 7
Exposure Rate from Gamma
Emitters

C / kg m 2
  3.65  10 9
f
i
i  Ei
MBq  hr

2
Rm
  0.5 f i  Ei
i Ci  hr

Different
evaluations of
same quantity
8
Specific Gamma Ray Constants ()

/ kg
1 C
=
it
un / X
1 X Sv
34

Adapted from Cember, pg. 226, Table 6.3

9
Final Words
 Why are you showing us R’s and
Ci’s, I thought we were supposed to
be learning SI?
 Correct
 Take Co-60 for example:
R m2
Co 60  1.32
Ci hr Which is
or easier to
mSv m 2 memorize?
Co 60  3.13  10  4
MBq hr
10
11
Beta-Ray Dose
 There are 4 generic cases we can
consider:
 Dose from beta surface
contamination
 Dose from skin contamination
 Dose from submersion in a beta field
(in a cloud; not including inhalation)
 Dose from volume beta source (like
a syringe)
12
Contaminated Plane Source

Skin Contamination
Submersion Source

Volume Source
Beta Radiation

 Beta radiation can be approximated by

semilog behavior (see Fig 5.2 Cember).
 Intensity of radiation can be described by:
 t
  o e
  is the beta intensity at depth t (energy/area-
time)
 o is the initial intensity
  is the beta-ray absorption coefficient

For depths less than the beta range!!!!

15
 Calculating 
 If maximum beta-ray energy Em is
in MeV, then  for air and tissue is
given by:
2
cm
  , tissue  18.6Emax  0.036
1.37

g
cm 2
  , air  16 Emax  0.036
1.4

g
16
Beta-Dose from Surface Contamination

17
 Beta-Dose From Surface
Contamination

 Ca, Bq cm-2
 50% betas up
 50% betas down

 Energy flux at surface is

  Ca 0.5E
 , fluence rate, energy / area-time
 Ē, average energy per dis
18
Beta-Dose at Surface Contamination

 Surface dose-rate:
    
D
 Calculating in SI units:
   Ca E  k
D
 where k is a constant of unit conversions
 See Cember, pg. 227-230

19
 More Interesting: Contact dose to the
skin

g
Bq MeV 13 J s    0.007 2
0 .5  f   C a 2
 E  1 . 6  10  3600     e cm


D  cm t MeV hr
0.001 J/g Gy
 mGy 
 
 3.6 10 4  Ca  E     e
   0.007
 
 hr 

This assumes that approximately 25% of the beta

particles going down are backscattered towards the
dose point (i.e. f=1.25)

nb: 0.5*1.25*1.6E-13*3600 = 3.6E-10

20
 Can determine dose to skin on contact,
and at a distance “d”, from the plane

 Bq   MeV   0.007  tissue  mGy 

  4

Dcontact  3.6 10  Ca  2   E      e  
 cm   trans   hr 
Equation 6.26 Cember

 Bq   MeV   0.007  tissue  mGy 

D at d  3.6  104  Ca  2   E 
 d   air

    e  e  
 cm   trans   hr 
Equation 6.31 Cember

21
Example: Spilled P-32
 A biologist spills a vial containing P-
32 onto a large surface. The areal
contamination is measured using a
large area contamination probe to
be approximately 37 Bq/cm2.
 What is the estimated beta-ray
contact dose rate to the skin and
the dose rate at a height of 1 metre
above the contaminated surface?

22
 Write down what you know for P-32
 Emax = 1.7 MeV (Eave ~ 0.57 MeV assuming 1/3 E ) max

 You can calculate the beta absorption

coefficients with the previous equations for
Emax
 μair=7.8 cm2/g
 μtissue=9.2 cm2/g
 On contact:


D
 3.6E  10 37 0.57 9.2  0.0079.2
e
0.001
Gy Gy
 7E  5  70
hr hr
 At 1 metre:


D
3.6 E  1037 0.57 9.2  0.1297.8 0.0079.2
e e
0.001
mGy Gy
 0.02  20
hr hr

What about half-life??

P-32 has ~ 14 day half-life

Hot Particles on Skin

25
Beta Skin Dosimetry

 Dead layer of skin provides some

shielding
 After going through the dead layer
of skin
 All the beta energy is generally
deposited in the living tissue
 Betas generally only travel about 1 cm
or less in tissue
 Energy deposited in tissue = dose

26
27
 Beta Skin Dosimetry

 Shielding provided by the dead

layer of skin can be approximated
by (Equation 6.21, Cember):
2
cm
  , tissue  18.6E max  0.036 
1.37

28
 Beta Skin Dosimetry
 Energy absorbed by living tissue
 0.007 g/cm2
 Adapted from Equation 6.26 (Cember):

g
Bq MeV 13 J s    0.007 2
0.5  Ca 2  E 1.6  10  3600     e cm

D   cm t MeV hr
0.001 J/g Gy
 mGy 
 
 2.88  10  4  Ca  E     e
   0.007
 
 hr 

Note: no backscatter (f) factor required here!

29
Beta Surface Dose

 If the beta emitter is not in contact

with the skin, add in other
attenuating material, such as air,
using appropriate coefficients
 Equation 6.20 gives attenuation in
air
 There can be other attenuation by
clothing.

30
 Standard Thickness

Material Thickness (mm) Density (g/cm3)

Lab Coat (Plastic) 0.1 0.036
Cotton Glove Liner 0.3 0.3
Surgeon's Glove 0.5 0.9
Outer Glove (thick) 0.45 1.1
Ribbed Outer Glove 0.55 0.9
Plastic Bootie 0.2 0.6
Rubber Shoe Cover 1.2 1.0

31
Example: Skin Contamination
 A worker accidentally spills 3.7 kBq
of P-32 solution on her skin.
 What is the dose rate to the
contaminated skin?

32
 13 9.20.007
D  0.5  3700  0.58 1.6 10  3600  9.2  e

0.001

 2.88 10 4
 3700  0.58  9.2  e 9.20.007

mGy
 5.3
hr

The regulatory limit for a non-nuclear energy worker

for a dose to the skin is 50 mSv in one calendar year.
Therefore she would get her yearly dose limit in 9.4
hours. (for NEWs, the dose limit is 10 times higher).
Submersion Dose

34
Submersion Dose
 Inside an infinite cloud of a
radionuclide
 rate of energy emission = rate of energy
absorption
 Given
 C (Bq/m3)
 Ē average beta energy (MeV)
 The dose rate is:
 CEk  mGy 
Dinf   4.45 10 7 C E  
 air  hr 
35
Example: Submersion in 85Kr

 Assume the person is in an infinite

cloud of Kr-85 (Emax=840 keV) at 10-6
μCi/cm3
 Rate of energy emission = rate of energy
absorption
 Assume half the betas are emitted
towards the skin, half away
 Assume tissue absorbs 10% more
energy than air on a per kg basis

36
 Convert to Useful Units

 1  10-6 microCi/cm3
4 6 3
6 Ci 3.7  10 Bq 1  10 cm
1  10  
3  Ci 3
cm m
= 3.7  10 Bq/m
4 3

37
 Calculating Submersion Dose
 1.1 = 10% greater energy
absorption
 0.5 = Half in, half out
 e-0.007   = dead skin shielding

Bq tps MeV 13 J s   0.007

0.5  1.1 C 1 E 1.6  10  3600  e
m3 Bq t MeV hr
J
kg kg
1.293 3  1
m Gy
38
 Submersion
 Combine terms

 10 Bq MeV   0.007  Gy 

D  2.45  10  C 3  E e  
m t  hr 

10 Bq
4 MeV  24.270.007
 2.45 10  3.7 10 3  0.280 e
m t
= 2.1  10-6 Gy/hr
= 2.1 uGy/hr

39
Volume Source

40
Volume Source

 Useful for finding beta dose rates

from container surfaces
 Assume “infinite” thickness
 Calculate dose rate in infinite
medium
 Divide in half to find dose rate at
surface
 Half go in, half go out
 Add in any shielding
See Cember (pg. 232) for equations
41