Elin Driana, Ph.

D
 “a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions”
(Tuckman, 1999, p. 4)

“the more formal, systematic, and intensive process of carrying

on a scientific method of analysis” (Best and Kahn, 1986, p. 18).
 Quantitative research is ‘Explaining phenomena by collecting
numerical
data that are analyzed using mathematically based methods (in
particular statistics).’
(Aliaga and Gunderson (2002) in Muijs (2004))
 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Type of research that allows the researcher to establish a
causal relationship between independent and dependent
variables by controlling extraneous variables.
Types of Research
Correlational Research
to determine relationship among two or more
variables.
Causal-Comparative Research
to determine the cause for or the consequences of
differences between groups of people
Survey Research
to describe characteristics of a group by means of such
instruments as interview questions, questionnaires,
and tests.
Steps in Quantitative Research
1. Selecting a Problem
2. Reviewing the literature
3. Formulating Research Question
4. Constructing Hypotheses
Steps in Quantitative Research

5. Identifying and Labeling Variables

6. Constructing Operational definitions of Variables
7. Constructing a Research Design
8. Identifying population and sample
Steps in Quantitative Research
9. Designing instruments
10. Selecting statistical test for testing the
hypothesis
11. Collecting Data
12. Analyzing Data
13. Writing the Report
Population and Sample
Population
The entire elements of interest in a particular
study
Sample
A subset of the population
Parameter
Numerical measures of a population
Statistic
Numerical measures of a sample
Variable
A characteristic that varies
1. Independent Variable
“the factor that is measured, manipulated, or
selected by the experimenter to determine its
relationship with to an observed phenomenon”
(Tuckman, 1999, p.93)
Variable (2)
2. Dependent Variable
“a response variable or output” (Tuckman, 1999, p. 93)
Variable (3)
3. Moderator Variable
“a special type of independent variable, a secondary
independent variable selected to determine if it
affects the relationship between the study’s primary
independent variable and it dependent variable”
(Tuckman, 1999, p. 97).
Variable (4)
4. Control Variables

“Factors controlled by the experimenter to cancel out or

neutralized any effect they might otherwise have on
observed phenomen”(Tuckman, 1999, p. 100)
Variable (5)
5. Intervening Variable

“a factor that theoretically affects observed

phenomena but cannot be seen, measured, or
manipulated; its effect must be inferred from the
effects of the independent and moderator variable
on the observed phenomenon” (Tuckman, 1999, p.
101)
Main Types of Data
Different values that are associated with
variable.

u Qualitative or Categorical Data

are classified in categories and not numerically
measured.
B. Quantitative or Numerical Data
are obtained either from a counting process
(discrete data) or from a measuring process
(continuous data)
Types of Scales (1)
A scale is a tool or mechanism to distinguish
individuals on the variables of interest to our study
(Sekaran, 1992).
Types of Scales (2)
There are four types of scales.

1. Nominal Scale
is not intended to measure a variable, but to assign
data into certain categories or groups.
 does not imply order or rank
Example: gender
Types of Scales (3)
2. Ordinal Scale
Contains the properties of nominal scale
rank the categories in some meaningful way.
Example: level of education.
Types of Scales (4)
3. Interval Scale
contains the properties of a nominal and an ordinal
scale
assumes the same interval among the points of scale

Example: attitude scale.

Types of Scales (5)
D. Ratio Scale
 contains the properties of nominal,
ordinal, and interval scales.
 the ratio between two values is
meaningful
 has an absolut zero point.
Example: Salary
 Scales of Measurement

Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Numerical Nonnumerical Numerical

Nominal Ordinal Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Source: Anderson, D.R., Sweeney, D.J., and Williams, T.A. (2008).

Statistics for business and economics, 10th Edition. Thomson South-
Western International Edition.