Unit Iii

EC 461Sensors and Transducers
Electronic Measurement
UNIT III
Ashline Geroge
Measurement
Measurements and Sources of

• Measurement is the process of determining or finding the
Errors
size, quantity or degree of something .
• The principle dimensional measurement is length; secondary
measurement is angle and curvature. You can describe shape
without describing size, but not the reverse.
09/05/2022
SI Units
Symbol Units Measured
Quantity
m Meter Length
Kg Kilogram Mass
s Second Time
K Kelvin Temperature
A Ampere Electrical Current
mol Mole Quantity of substance
Cd Candela Luminosity
rd Radian Plane angle

English Units

Equivalent value Value English unit
in SI
1 mile = 1.609 km 1mile=1760yard Miles
Yard
1yd = 91.44 cm 1 yard = 3 ft
Foot
1 ft = 30.48 cm 1 ft = 12 in
Inch
1 in = 25.4 mm in
Measurement Methods
• Four methods of measurement:
1. Direct method. compare the quantity directly with the
primary or secondary standard.
2. Indirect method.
5
Measurement Methods (Cont.)

1. Comparison method: the comparison of an unknown
quantity to a known quantity called a standard using Dial
Indicator.
2. Coincidence method.
Measuring Instruments
• Measuring instruments are measuring devices
that transform the measured quantity into an
information, either analog or digital.
7
Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
 The functions of the measuring instruments
are:
1. Indicating function
2. Recording function
3. Controlling function
The applications of the measuring
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instruments are:
1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of process
3. Experimental engineering analysis
Measuring Instruments Types
 Measuring Instruments Types:
1. Angle measuring Instruments: e.g. Angle gauges;
Divided scales; Sine bar with slip gauges; Autocollimator; and
Tool Maker Microscope.
2. Length measuring Instruments: ex: Steel rule; Caliper;
Micrometer; and comparators.
3. Instruments for surface finish: surface roughness
measurements. 9
4. Instruments for deviations: Coordinate Measuring
Machine (CMM).
Measurement Applications
 Measurement Applications
1. Plate Work: The layout and inspection
performed from a surface plate. The
primary purpose of a surface plate is to
provide a reference plane.
2. Coordinate Measurement
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3. Statistical Quality Control
4. Inspection: Verification of conformity to a
standard.
Terms in Measurements
• Resolution:
It is the minimum value that can be measured when the
instrument is gradually increased from non-zero value.
• Repeatability:
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured under same conditions.
Reproducibility: 11
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured under different conditions.
Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy is the agreement between a measured value and the
true value.
• Precision also called reproducibility or repeatability, the
degree to which further measurements or calculations show
the same or similar results.
• Instrument precision is usually associated with the number of
digits displayed on the output, i.e., its resolution.
12
Accuracy and Precision (Cont.)
• Accuracy indicates proximity to the true value, precision to the 13

repeatability or reproducibility of the measurement
Accuracy and Precision (Cont.)
14
High accuracy, but High precision, but
low precision low accuracy
Measurements and Sources of
and Transducers
Accuracy and Precision Errors
EC 461Sensors Errors
• Accuracy Error is • Precision error is
Inaccuracy or the random error.
Uncertainty.
• Accuracy error is the • Precision error is
measured value minus the reading minus
the true value. the average of 15
readings.
Measurements Errors
 Measurements Errors :
Is the difference between the true value of the size and the
value found by measurement.
 Errors pertains to measurement not to an instrument.
Error = True Size – Actual Size
 True Size: is the theoretical size obtained through
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measurement. This type of size is free from any type of
error. It is the guide for measuring many properties such
as accuracy of an instrument.
 Actual Size: is a measured size with permissible error. It
refers to the minimum acceptable size of a sample.
Measurements Errors (cont.)
• There are two general categories of error: systematic (or bias)
errors and random (or precision) errors.
Errors 17
• Systematic
• Random
Systematic Errors
• Systematic errors (also called bias errors)
They are consistent, repeatable errors. For example,
suppose the first two millimeters of a ruler are worn off,
and the user is not aware of it. Everything he or she
measures will be too short by two millimeters – a
systematic error.
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Systematic Errors Sources
Systematic errors arise for many reasons. Here are just a few:
 Calibration Errors: due to nonlinearity or errors in the calibration
method.
 Loading or Intrusion Errors: the sensor may actually change the
very thing it is trying to measure.
 Spatial Errors: arise when a quantity varies in space, but a
measurement is taken only at one location (e.g. temperature in a
room - usually the top of a room is warmer than the bottom). 19
 Human Errors: arise if a person consistently reads a scale on the
low side, for example.
 Defective Equipment Errors: arise if the instrument consistently
reads too high or too low due to some internal problem or
damage.
Random Errors
• Random errors
They are unrepeatable, inconsistent errors,
resulting in scatter in the output data.
The random error of one data point is defined as
the reading minus the average of readings.
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Other Sources of Errors
There are many other errors, which all have technical names, as
defined here:
• Zero Error:
• The instrument does not read zero when the input is zero.
• Zero error is a type of bias error that offsets all measurements taken by
the instrument, but can usually be corrected by some kind of zero
offset adjustment.
21
• Linearity Error:
• The output deviates from the calibrated linear relationship between
the input and the output.
• Linearity error is a type of bias error, but unlike zero error, the degree
of error varies with the magnitude of the reading.
Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)
• Sensitivity Error:
• The slope of the output vs. input curve is not calibrated exactly in
the first place.
• Since this affects all readings by the instrument, this is a type of
systematic or bias error.
• Resolution Error:
• The output precision is limited to discrete steps (e.g., if one reads
to the nearest millimeter on a ruler, the resolution error is around 22
+/- 1 mm).
• Resolution error is a type of random or precision error.
• Hysteresis Error:
• The output is different, depending on whether the input is
increasing or decreasing at the time of measurement.
• This is a separate error from instrument repeatability error.
• Instrument Repeatability Error:
• The instrument gives a different output, when the input returns
to the same value.
• The reasons for the differences and the procedure to get to that 23
value are usually random, so instrument repeatability error is a
type of random error.
 Drift Error:
 The output changes (drifts) from its correct value, even though
the input remains constant.
 Drift error can often be seen in the zero reading, which may
fluctuate randomly due to electrical noise and other random
causes, or it can drift higher or lower (zero drift) due to
nonrandom causes, such as a slow increase in air temperature in
the room.
 Thus, drift error can be either random or systematic. 24
 Parallax:
 This error can occur whenever there is some distance between
the measuring scale and the indicator used to obtain a
measurement.
 If the observer's eye is not squarely aligned with the pointer and
scale, the reading may be too high or low (some analog meters
have mirrors to help with this alignment).
25
• Environmental factors:
• Be aware of errors introduced by your immediate working
environment.
• Take account for or protect your experiment from vibrations, drafts,
changes in temperature, electronic noise or other effects from nearby
apparatus.
• Reading Error:
• Describes such factors as parallax, interpolation, or optical resolution. 26
• Loading Error:
• results from the change of the measurement instrument when it is
being used.
• Effect of support.
• Dirt.
Paradox of Measurements
• The Merits:
• Measurements are essential for development of
science and technology.
• It helps innovation and production of new utilities.
• The (self) Contradiction:
• It is impossible to obtain true value of a parameter
using measurement. 27
• A reliable measurement can generate reliable
information.
The First Law of Measurements
A good measuring strategy is reliable and, because it is

reliable, it has a small amount of error in its
observations.
28
Error of Measurement
• Error of measurement refers to the difference between

the measurement we obtain and the "true" value of the
variable.
• Question: How do you get the "true" measure if all
measuring methods produce errors?
• Answer: "True" measures cannot be obtained, but they
can be estimated. 29
Estimation of the True Value
• What are we trying to measure?

• The true value of an object being measured is rarely ever
known.
• Identifying the true value needed by an end user is
critical.
• The true value is often a concept that is very hard (or
impossible) to measure.
• Moffat uses the example of average surface temperature 30
as a true value that is needed for control of a chip.
Errors in Measurement
• No Measurement is Exact
• Every Measurement Contains Errors
• The “True” Value of a Measurement is Never
Known
• The “Exact” Error Present is Always Unknown
31
Mistakes or Blunders
• Caused by:
• Carelessness
• Poor Judgment
• Incompetence
32
Sources of Errors
• Natural
• Environmental conditions: wind, temperature,
humidity etc.
• Tape contracts and expands due to temperature
changes
• Difficult to read Philadelphia Rod with heat waves
coming up from the pavement 33
Sources of Errors
• Instrumental
• Due to Limitation of Equipment
• Warped Philadelphia Rod
• Theodolite out of adjustment
• Kinked or damaged Tape
34
Sources of Errors
• Personal
• Limits of Human Performance Factors
• Sight
• Strength
• Judgement
• Communication 35
Types of Errors
• Systematic/Cumulative
• Errors that occur each time a measurement is made
• These Errors can be eliminated by making corrections
to your measurements
• Tape is too long or to short
• Theodolite is out of adjustment
• Warped Philadelphia Rod 36
Precision vs. Accuracy
• Precision
• The “Closeness” of one measurement to another
37
Precision vs. Accuracy
• Accuracy
• The degree of perfection obtained in a measurement.
38
Precision and Accuracy
• Ultimate Goal of the Surveyor
• Rarely Obtainable
• Surveyor is happy with Precise Measurements
39
Computing Precision
• Precision:
40
Probability
• Surveying measurements tend to follow a normal
distribution or “bell” curve
• Observations
• Small errors occur more frequently than larger ones
• Positive and negative errors of the same magnitude
occur with equal frequency
• Large errors are probably mistakes
41
Most Probable Value (MPV)
Also known as the arithmetic mean or average value
MPV = M 42
The MPV isnthe sum of all of the measurements

divided by the total number of measurements
Measuring Voltage and Current
• d’Arsenval analog meter movement
43
AMMETER
As the angular deflection in PMMC pointer is directly proportional to current,

it can be used as ammeter.
The coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, so it can carry only
very small currents. A low value resistor (shunt resistor) is used in DC ammeter
to measure large current.
Multi Range Ammeter
We make multiple range ammeters using two methods.
1. Multi range method
2. Universal shunt method
1. Multi range method:

• The range of DC ammeter is extended by a number of shunts,
selected by a range switch.
• The resistors are placed in parallel to give different current ranges.
• Switch S (multi position switch) protects the meter movement from
being damage during range changing
2. Universal Shunt Model:
VOLTMETER
• A moving coil galvanometer can be used as a voltmeter by inserting a
resistor in series with the instrument.
• The galvanometer has a coil of fine wire suspended in a strong magnetic
field.
• When an electric current is applied, the interaction of the magnetic field of
the coil and of the stationary magnet creates a torque, tending to make
the coil rotate.
• The torque is proportional to the current through the coil.
• The coil rotates, compressing a spring that opposes the rotation.
• The deflection of the coil is thus proportional to the current, which in turn
is proportional to the applied voltage, which is indicated by a pointer on a
scale.
Basic voltmeter circuit
Multi range voltmeter:

1. Individual multiplier method
2. Potentiometric method
1. Potentiometric method:
2. Individual multiplier method:

Difference Between Ammeters And Voltmeters:
Parameters Ammeter Voltmeter

It is to be connected in series It is to be connected in
Connection
mode parallel mode
It has comparatively low
Resistance It has high resistance
resistance
It is used to find the
It is used to find the amount of
Uses potential difference in the
current flowing in the circuit
circuit
Circuit must be disconnected in Circuit does not need to
Circuit
order to attach the ammeter be disconnected
Considered as more
Accuracy Considered as less accurate accurate compared to
ammeter
Analog Ammeter
• Use a d’Arsenval meter movement with a parallel resistor (shunt).
• The parallel resistor diverts some of the current away from the
meter movement.
51
Analog Voltmeter
• Use a d’Arsenval meter movement in series with a resistor
(multiplier).
• The resistor limits the voltage drop across the meter movement.
52
Sources of Error
• Any instrument (meter) used to make measurements extracts
energy from the circuit. (Known as “loading” the circuit).
• The amount of error due to loading depends on the effective
resistance of the instrument compared with the resistance in
the circuit.
53
Rule of the “one-tenth”
• The effective resistance of the ammeter should be no more
than 1/10th of the value of the smallest resistance in the
circuit.
• The current being measured should be the same with or without
the ammeter.
54
For a Voltmeter
• Since voltage is a parallel measurement, the “loading” effect is
minimized when the voltmeter resistance is much higher than
the circuit resistance across which the measurement is being
made.
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ANALOG INSTUMENT-#-THE SIGNAL WHICH
CONTINUOUSLY VARY AND TAKE INFINITE
VALUES FOR GIVEN RANG ARE CALLED
ANALOG SIGNALS.
#-THE INSTRUMENT THAT INVOLVES THE

USE OF ANALOG SIGNALS IS CALLEDAS AN
ANALOGINSTRUMENT
TYPES OF ANALOG INSTRUMENTS
Types of ammeter and voltmeter
1. Permanent magnet moving coil type (P.M.M.C.)
2. Moving iron (M.I.)
Attraction type Repulsion type

PMMC………….
• Principle of Operation: When a current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a
force and tends to move in the direction as per Fleming’s
left hand rule.
Fleming left hand rule: If the first and the second finger and
the thumb of the left hand are held so that they are at right
angle to each other, then the thumb shows the direction of
the force on the conductor, the first finger points towards the
direction of the magnetic field and the second finger shows
the direction of the current in the wire.
Construction:
• A coil of thin wire is mounted on an aluminum frame
(spindle) positioned between the poles of a U shaped
permanent magnet which is made up of magnetic alloys
like alnico.
• The coil is pivoted on the jewelled bearing and thus the
coil is free to rotate. The current is fed to the coil through
spiral springs which are two in numbers. The coil which
carries a current, which is to be measured, moves in a
strong magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet
and a pointer is attached to the spindle which shows the
measured value.
Working:
• When a current flow through the coil, it generates a

magnetic field which is proportional to the current in case
of an ammeter. The deflecting torque is produced by the
electromagnetic action of the current in the coil and the
magnetic field.
• The controlling torque is provided by two phosphorous
bronze flat coiled helical springs. These springs serve as a
flexible connection to the coil conductors.
• Damping is caused by the eddy current set up in the
aluminum coil which prevents the oscillation of the coil.
TorqueEquation
Applications:
The PMMC has a variety of uses onboard ship. It can be
used as:
1) Ammeter:
• When PMMC is used as an ammeter, except for a very
small current range, the moving coil is connected across
a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only small part of
the main current flows through the coil.
• The shunt consists of a number of thin plates made up of
alloy metal, which is usually magnetic and has a low
temperature coefficient of resistance, fixed between two
massive blocks of copper. A resistor of same alloy is also
placed in series with the coil to reduce errors due to
temperature variation.
Applications………..
• Voltmeter:
When PMMC is used as a voltmeter, the coil is connected in
series with high resistance. Rest of the function is same as
above. The same moving coil can be used as an ammeter or
voltmeter with an interchange of above arrangement
Applications……….
• Ohm Meter:
The ohm meter is used to measure resistance of the electric
circuit by applying a voltage to a resistance with the help of
battery. A galvanometer is used to determine the flow of
current through the resistance. The galvanometer scale is
marked in ohms and as the resistance varies, since the
voltage is fixed, the current through the meter will also
vary.
Advantages:
• The PMMC consumes less power and has great accuracy.

• It has uniformly divided scale and can cover arc of 270
degree.
• The PMMC has a high torque to weight ratio.
• It can be modified as ammeter or voltmeter with
suitable resistance.
• It has efficient damping characteristics and is not
affected by stray magnetic field.
• It produces no losses due to hysteresis.
Disadvantage:
• The moving coil instrument can only be used on D.C

supply as the reversal of current produces reversal of
torque on the coil.
• It’s very delicate and sometimes uses ac circuit with a
rectifier.
• It’s costly as compared to moving coil iron
instruments.
• It may show error due to loss of magnetism of
permanent magnet.
Anderson’s Bridge
• To accurate self inductance measurement of an unknown coil .
• This bridge is a modification of the maxwell's inductive and
capacitive bridge.
• In this method, the self inductance is measured in terms of a
standard capacitor.
• This method is applicable for precise measurement of self
inductance over wide range of values.
68
• The main disadvantage of using Hay's bridge and Maxwell
bridge is that, they are unsuitable of measuring the low
quality factor.
• However Hay's bridge and Maxwell bridge are suitable for
measuring accurately high and medium quality factor
respectively.
• So, there is need of bridge which can measure low quality
69
factor and this bridge is modified Maxwell's bridge and known
as Anderson's bridge.
• In this bridge double balance can obtained by fixing the value
of capacitance and changing the value of electrical resistance
only.
• It is well known for its accuracy of measuring inductor from
few micro Henry to several Henry.
• The unknown value of self inductor is measured by method of
comparison of known value of electrical resistance and
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capacitance.
71

• In this circuit the unknown inductor is connected between the
point a and b with electrical resistance r1 (which is pure resistive).
• The arms bc, cd and da consist of resistances r3, r4 and r2
respectively which are purely resistive.
• A standard capacitor is connected in series with variable electrical
resistance r and this combination is connected in parallel with cd.
• A supply is connected between a and c. Now let us derive the
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expression for l1 and r1:
• At balance point, we have the following relations that holds good
and they are: i1 = i3 and i2 = ic + i4
Advantages of Anderson's Bridge
• It is very easy to obtain the balance point in Anderson's bridge
as compared to Maxwell bridge in case of low quality factor
coils.
• There is no need of variable standard capacitor is required
instead of thin a fixed value capacitor is used.
• This bridge also gives accurate result for determination of
capacitance in terms of inductance.
73
Disadvantages of Anderson's Bridge
• The equations obtained for inductor in this bridge is more
complex as complex as compared to Maxwell's bridge.
• The addition of capacitor junction increases complexity as well
as difficulty of shielding the bridge.
74
Schering Bridge
• used to measure to the capacitance of the capacitor,
dissipation factor and measurement of relative permittivity
75
76

• Here, c1 is the unknown capacitance whose value is to be
determined with series electrical resistance r1.
• c2 is a standard capacitor. c4 is a variable capacitor. r3 is a pure
resistor (i.e. non inductive in nature).
• And r4 is a variable non inductive resistor connected in parallel
with variable capacitor c4.
• Now the supply is given to the bridge between the points a 77
and c.
• The detector is connected between b and d. From the theory
of ac bridges we have at balance condition,
• Substituting the values of z , z , z and z in
1 2 3 4
the above equation, we get
78
• Equating the real and imaginary parts and

the separating we get,
79

• Let us consider the phasor diagram of the
above Shering bridge circuit and mark the
voltage drops across ab,bc,cd and ad as e ,
1
e ,e and e respectively.
3 4 2
• From the above Schering bridge phasor

diagram, we can calculate the value of tanδ
which is also called the dissipation factor. 80
• The equation that we have derived above is quite simple and
the dissipation factor can be calculated easily.
• high voltage schering bridge - for the measurement of small
capacitance we need to apply high voltage and high frequency
as compare to low voltage which suffers many disadvantages
81
OHMMETER
• Instrument which measures resistance of a quantity.
• Resistance in the electrical sense means the opposition
offered by a substance to the current flow in the device.
• Every device has a resistance, it may be large or small and it
increases with temperature for conductors, however for
semiconducting devices the reverse is true.
• There are many types of ohmmeters available such as
82
• Series ohmmeter.
• Shunt ohmmeter.
• Multi range ohmmeter.
• The instrument is connected with a battery, a series adjustable
resistor and an instrument which gives the reading.
• The resistance to be measured is connected at terminal ob.
When the circuit is completed by connecting output
resistance, the circuit current flows and so the deflection is
measured.
83
• When the resistance to be measured is very high then current
in the circuit will be very small and the reading of that
instrument is assumed to be maximum resistance to be
measured.
• When resistance to be measured is zero then the instrument
reading is set to zero position which gives zero resistance.
84
Series type Ohmmeter
85

• The series type ohmmeter consists of a current limiting
resistor R1, Zero adjusting resistor R2, EMF source E, Internal
resistance of D’Arsonval movement Rm and the resistance to
be measured R.
• When there is no resistance to be measured, current drawn by
the circuit will be maximum and the meter will show a
deflection.
86
• By adjusting R2 the meter is adjusted to a full scale current
value since the resistance will be zero at that time.
• The co-responding pointer indication is marked as zero.
• Again when the terminal AB is opened it provides very high
resistance and hence almost zero current will flow through the
circuit.
• In that case the pointer deflection is zero which is marked at
very high value for resistance measurement.
• So a resistance between zeros to a very high value is marked
and hence can be measured.
• So, when a resistance is to be measured, the current value will
be somewhat less than the maximum and the deflection is
recorded and accordingly resistance is measured.
87
• This method is good but it posses certain limitations such as
the decrease in potential of the battery with its use so
adjustment must be made for every use.
• The meter may not read zero when terminals are shorted,
these types of problem may arise which is counteracted by the
adjustable resistance connected in series with the battery.
Shunt type Ohmmeter
88

• In this type of meters we have a battery source and an
adjustable resistor is connected in series with the source.
• We have connected the meter in parallel to the resistance
which is to be measured.
• There is a switch by the use of which we can on or off the
circuit.
• The switch is opened when it is not in use.
89
• When the resistance to be measured is zero, the terminals A
and F are shorted so the current through the meter will be
zero.
• The zero position of the meter denotes the resistance to be
zero.
• When the resistance connected is very high, then a small
current will flow the terminal AF and hence full scale current is
allowed to flow through the meter by adjusting the series
resistance connected with the battery.
• So, full scale deflection measures very high resistance.
• When the resistance to be measured is connected between A
and F, The pointer shows a deflection by which we can
90
measure the resistance values.
• In this case also, the battery problem may arise which can be
counteracted by adjusting the resistance.
• The meter may have some error due to its repeated use also.
Multi range Ohmmeter
91

EC 461Sensors an
d Transducers
• This instrument provides the reading up to a very wide range
• In this case we have to select the range switch according to
our requirement.
• An adjuster is provided so that we can adjust the initial
reading to be zero.
• The resistance to be measured is connected in parallel to the
meter.
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• The meter is adjusted so that it shows full scale deflection
when the terminals in which the resistance connected is full
scale range connected through the range switch.
• When the resistance is zero or short circuit, there is no current
flow through the meter and hence no deflection.
• Suppose we have to measure a resistance under 1 ohm, then
the range switch is selected at 1 ohm range at first.
• Then that resistance is connected in parallel and the
corresponding meter deflection is noted.
• For 1 ohm resistance it shows full scale deflection but for the
resistance other that 1 ohm it shows a deflection which is less
than the full load value and hence resistance can be
93
measured.
• This is the most suitable method of all the ohmmeters as we
can get accurate reading in this type of meters. So this meter
is most widely used now days.
Frequency Measurement
• Frequency can be measured on an oscilloscope by
investigating the frequency spectrum of a signal on the screen
and making a small calculation.
• Frequency is defined as the several times a cycle of an
observed wave takes up in a second.
• The maximum frequency of a scope can measure may vary but
it always in the 100’s of MHz range.
94
• To check the performance of response of signals in a circuit,
scope measures the rise and fall time of the wave.
Method to Measure Frequency
1. Increase the vertical sensitivity to get the clear picture of the wave
on the screen without chopping any of its amplitude off.
2. Now adjust the sweep rate in such a way that screen displays a
more than one but less than two complete cycles of the wave.
3. Now count the number of divisions of one complete cycle on the
graticule from start to end.
4. Now take horizontal sweep rate and multiply it with the number
of units that you counted for a cycle. 95
It will give you the period of the wave.
The period is the number of seconds each repeating waveform takes.
With the help of period, you can simply calculate the frequency in cycles
per second (Hertz).
Wien Bridge Oscillator
• type of phase-shift oscillator which is based upon a Wien-
Bridge network comprising of four arms connected in a bridge
fashion.
96
• Here two arms are purely resistive while the other two arms
are a combination of resistors and capacitors.
• In particular, one arm has resistor and capacitor connected in
series (R1 and C1) while the other has them in parallel (R2 and
C2).
• This indicates that these two arms of the network behave
identical to that of high and low-pass filters, respectively, 97
• In this circuit, at high frequencies, the reactance of the
capacitors C1 and C2 will be very less due to which the voltage
V0 will become zero as R2 will be shorted.
• Next, at low frequencies, the reactance of the capacitors C1
and C2 will become very high.
• However even in this case, the output voltage V0 will remain at
zero only, as the capacitor C1 would be acting as an open 98
circuit.
• This kind of behaviour exhibited by the Wien-Bridge network
makes it a lead-lag circuit in the case of low and high
frequencies, respectively.
• Nevertheless, amidst these two frequencies, there
exists a particular frequency at which the values
of the resistance and the capacitive reactance will
become equal to each other, producing maximum
output voltage.
• This frequency is referred to as resonant
frequency which is given as
99
1
𝑓 𝑟=
2 𝜋 𝑅𝐶
• Further, at this frequency, the phase-shift between the input
and the output will become zero and the magnitude of the
output voltage will become equal to one-third of the input
value.
• In addition, it is seen that the Wien-Bridge will be balanced
only at this particular frequency.
100
• Wien-Bridge networks are low frequency oscillators which are
used to generate audio- and sub-audio frequencies ranging
between 20 Hz to 20 KHz.
• Further, they provide stabilized, low distorted sinusoidal
output over a wide range of frequency which can be selected
using decade resistance boxes.
• In addition, the oscillation frequency in this kind of circuit can
101
be varied quite easily as it just needs variation of the
capacitors C1 and C2.
• However these oscillators require large number of circuit
components and can be operated upto a certain maximum
frequency only.
Errors
• (a) Contact potentials are small voltages that may occur at
junctions of two dissimilar metals, for example between hook-
up wires and binding posts.
• (b) Thermoelectric emfs occur between dissimilar metals
when there is a temperature difference between the two
metals. Their effect on a measurement may be an error of
either positive or negative sign, depending on the sign of the
temperature difference. 102
• (c) Resistance of connecting wires.
• (d) Internal resistance of the power source.
• (e) Resistive heating of one or more arms of the bridge,
changing their resistance.
• There are also possible indeterminate errors:
• (f) Insufficient sensitivity of the galvanometer.
• (g) Non-uniformity of the slidewire.
103

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EC 461Sensors and Transducers

Measurements and Sources of

A Ampere Electrical Current

mol Mole Quantity of substance

rd Radian Plane angle

EC 461Sensors and Transducers

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EC 461Sensors and Transducers

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EC 461Sensors and Transducers

EC 461Sensors and Transducers

the above equation, we get

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EC 461Sensors and Transducers

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EC 461Sensors and Transducers

EC 461Sensors and Transducers

EC 461Sensors and Transducers

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