DEVELOPING A

PERSPECTIVE
UNIT 1
THEORETICAL PERSECTIVE OF
HUMAN BEHAVIOUR
• Psycho-analytic Framework.
• Behaviouristic Framework.
• Social Learning Framework.
• Cognitive Framework.
Psycho-analytic Framework
• The method of psychological therapy was originated by
Sigmund Freud in which free association, dream interpretation
and analysis of resistance and transference are used to explore
repressed or unconscious impulses, anxieties, and internal
conflicts, in order to free psychic energy for mature love and
work.
The psycho-analytic framework stresses the importance of
understanding:
• That each individual is unique.
• That there are factors outside of a person’s awareness (unconscious
thoughts, feelings and experience) which influence his or her
thoughts and actions.
• That the past shapes the present.
• That the human beings are always engaged in their process of
development throughout their lives.
• In Freud’s Psycho-analytic theory, the unconscious mind is a
reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that is beyond
our conscious awareness.

• Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or

unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety or conflict.

• According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our

behaviour and experience, even though we are unaware of these
underlying influences.
Behaviouristic Framework
• The roots of behaviouristic theory of human behaviour can be
traced back to the work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson.
• They stressed the importance of dealing with observable
behaviour instead of the elusive mind that had preoccupied
earlier psychologists.
• They used classical conditioning experiment to formulate the
stimulus-response (S-R)explanation of human behaviour.
• Based on Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning experiment using dogs as
subjects,
• When presented with meat (unconditioned stimulus) – the dog
secreted saliva (unconditioned response).
• When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus) the dog did not
salivate.
• When meat was accompanied with the ringing of the bell, several
times, then Pavlov rang the bell without presenting the meat, the
dog salivated to the bell alone.
• Conclusion : that the dog has become classically conditioned to
salivate (conditioned response) to the sound of the bell(conditioned
stimulus).

• Thus Classical Conditioning can be defined as a process in which a

formerly neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned
stimulus, becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicit a conditioned
response; in other words, S-R connection is learned.
Operant Conditioning –
B.F.Skinner
• He felt that the early behaviourists helped explain
respondent’s behaviours (those behaviours elicited by
stimulus) but failed to explain the more complex operant
behaviours.
• In other words, the S-R approach helped explain the physical
reflexes, fro example: when stuck by a pin (s) the person will
flinch (R), or when tapped below the kneecap (S), the Epson
will extend the lower leg (R)
• He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates on, the
environment to receive a desirable consequences.
• This type of behaviour is learned through operant conditioning.
• Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with learning that
occurs as consequence of behaviour, or R-S.
• He emphasized the importance of the response-stimulus (R-S)
relationship.
• Today Operant Conditioning has much greater impact on human
learning than classical conditioning.
• It explain much of organizational behaviour.
• Eg: people go to work to feed, cloth and house themselves and
their families- working (conditioned response) is instrumental in
obtaining food, shelter and clothing.
• Managers can analyse the consequences of organizational
behaviour, to change the environment and help accomplish goals.
COGNITIVE FRAMEWORK
• The cognitive approach to human behaviour has many source
of inputs (the five senses)
• Cognition, which is the basic unit of the cognitive framework,
can be defined as the act of knowing an item from
information.
• Under this framework, cognition precedes behaviour and
constitutes input into the persons thinking, perception,
problem solving and information processing.
Edward Tolman Cognitive Framework
• Although Tolman believed behaviour to be appropriate unit of
analysis, he felt that behaviour is purposeful, that it is directed
towards a goal.
• He felt that cognitive learning consists of a relationship
between cognitive environmental cues and expectations.
• Through experimentation, he found out that a rat could learn
to run through an intricate maze, with purpose and direction,
towards goal (food).
• Tolman observed that at each point in the maze, expectations were
established- in other words, the rat learned to expect a certain
cogitative cue associated with the choice point might eventually
lead to the food.
• If the rat actually received the food, the association between the
cue and the expectancy was strengthened and learning occurred.
• Tolman’s approach could be depicted that learning is an association
between the cue and the expectancy.
• Applied to OB, Cognitive approach has dominated unit of
analysis such as perception, personality and attitudes,
motivation, decision making and goal setting.
Social Learning Framework
• Social Cognitive theorists argue that the S-R model and to a
lesser degree the R-S model, are too mechanistic explanation
of human.
• The social cognitive approach tires to integrate the
contribution of Cognitive and Behaviouristic Approach.
• Social theory recognizes the importance of behaviourism’s
contingent environmental consequences, but also includes
cognitive processes of self regulation.
• Based on the work of Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory
proposes a social learning approach to organizational behaviour.

• Bandura explains that “it is largely through their actions that people
produce the environmental conditions that affect their behaviour in
a reciprocal fashion.

• A triangular model of Organizational participants, Organizational

Environment and Organizational Behaviour takes this social learning
work of Bandura and translates it into relevant unit of analysis and
variables of OB.
Methods of Collecting Behavioural Data
• Observational Method
• Surveys
• Experiments
• Case Studies
• Interviews.
Observational Method
• Most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences.
• Information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.
• Subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done accurately.
• Information obtained under this method relates to what is
currently happening.
• Types of Observations:
• Structured Observation & Unstructured Observation.
• Participant Observation & Non-Participant Observation.
• Controlled & Uncontrolled Observation.
Surveys
• Primary method of collecting behavioural data.

• Involves asking individuals to respond to a number of questions –

open ended or close ended.

• Open-ended question :how they feel about goal-setting in relation

to productivity.

• Close-ended: a response key is supplied, such as rating of 1 to 5.

• Today, it is easy to create online surveys to get quick complied

results automatically.
Experiments
• The experimental method of data collection involves
manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one
variable cause changes in another variable.
• It must be fair and unbiased.
• It should not allow any outside factor to affect the final
outcome.
• It should be based on proving a hypothesis.
Case Studies
• Are in-depth descriptions of a single industry or company.
• Case writers typically employ a systematic approach to
gathering data and explaining an event or situation in great
detail.
• They provide rich information fro drawing conclusions about
the circumstances and people involved in the topics studied.
Interviews
• This method of data collecting involves presentation or oral-
verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
• It includes Personal Interview, Structured Interview, Group
Interview, Telephonic Interview, depth interviews, etc.
• Efficiency is doing things right.

• Effectiveness is doing the right

things.
Efficiency v/s Effectiveness
• Effectiveness:
• Measures if actual output meets desired output.
• Takes into consideration the long term strategy.
• Having desires or innovative ways of working.
• Focuses on the results.

• Efficiency:
• Getting the maximum output with minimum input
(objective performance)
• Takes into consideration the present state.
• Doing things consistently.
• Focuses on the process.