EMT 4103 SENSORS AND

TRANSDUCERS ON 3 RD

JUNE 2020 LESSON 3

1. Viscosity sensors and transducers
2. Humidity sensors and transducers
3. Flow sensors and transducers
Viscosity Sensors and Transducers
In food industry, viscosity of raw materials such as dough, butter and
ice cream has a direct effect on the quality of the product.
In cement industry.
Assembly e.g flow of glue through tubes
Types:
1.Capillary and tubes viscometers/viscosimeters
2.Falling body viscometers
3.Rotational body viscometers e.g. cone and plate, parallel plates,
coaxial cylinders viscosimeters.
Viscometers or viscosimeters
4. Falling piston viscometers
5. Oscillating piston viscometers
6. Vibrational e.g. quartz, quartz crystal viscosimeters
7. Electromagnetically spinning sphere viscometers
8. Bubble viscometers
9. Krebs viscosimeters
10. Rectangular slit viscosimeters.
Capillary and tube viscometers

where R is the radius (m) of the tube, L is its length (m), P is the pressure difference
(N/m2) across the ends and V is the volume of liquid flowing in time T (m3/s).

For non-Newtonian fluids, corrections must be made for shear rate variations. For any
given viscometer, R, L and V are constants
Falling body viscometer

where R is the radius (m) of the sphere, g is the

acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) and ρs and ρl are
the specific gravities (g/m3) of the sphere and liquid
respectively and V is the velocity (m/s) of the
sphere.

For non-Newtonian fluids, correction for the

variation in shear rate is very difficult.
Rotational viscometers
Torque required to turn an object in a fluid function of its viscosity.
One driven and other suspended by tension wire.

where G is the couple (Nm) formed by the force exerted by the torsion wire and its
deflection, R1 and R2 are the radii (m) of the inner and outer cylinders, h is the length
of the cylinder (m) and ω is the angular velocity (rad/s) of the rotating cylinder.
Moisture and Humidity Sensors and
Transducers
1. Mechanical methods
2. Gravimetric methods
3. Water separation
4. Neutron moderation
5. Phase change
6. Equilibrium relative humidity measurements
7. Ultrasonic methods
8. Optical methods.
Moisture and Humidity Sensors and
Transducers
9. Low resolution magnetic resonance (NMR)
10. Elec methods:
a)Capacitive moisture meter
b)Microwave energy
c)Freq. change in a quartz crystal
d)Elec. Conductivity
11. Hygrometers
Importance of humidity measurement
• Physical properties and storage stability of most solids depend on
moisture
E.g. medicine, foodstuffs, plastics, textiles, paper
• Moisture content in milk etc
 Humidity sensors and transducers
Humidity Capacitive sensors

Humidity sensors and transducers

• Humidity Capacitive sensors
Hygrometers
• materials, such as hair, skin, membranes, and thin strips of wood,
change their length as they absorb water.
• This change in length is directly related to humidity.
• Operating temp about 70°C.
• Accuracy approximately ±5%
• Other devices use hydroscopic materials that change their electrical
properties with humidity
Types of hygrometers
Indirectly measure humidity by sensing changes in physical or electrical
properties in materials due to their moisture content
•Laminate hygrometer
•Hair hygrometer
•Resistive hygrometer
•Capacitive hygrometer
•Piezoelectric hygrometer
Two types of hygrometers, using
(a) metal/wood laminate, and (b) hair.
Hair hygrometer
• Simplest and oldest hygrometer, made using hair.
• Human hair lengthens by 3% when the humidity changes from 0% to
100%.
• The change in length controls a pointer for visual readings, or to
control a transducer, such as an LVDT, for an electrical output.

• The accuracy of approximately 5% for the humidity range 20% to

90%, over the temperature range -15° to 70°C.
Piezoelectric or sorption hygrometers
• Use two piezoelectric crystal oscillators.
• One is used as a reference and is enclosed in a dry atmosphere, and
the other is exposed to the humidity to be measured.
• Moisture increases the mass of the crystal, which decreases its
resonant frequency.

• By comparing the frequencies of the two oscillators, the humidity can

be calculated. Moisture content of gases from 1 to 25,000 p/m can be
measured.
Hydrometers: (a) resistive, and (b) capacitive.
Ultrasonic and mechanical methods
• Noncontact
• The presence of water changes the speed of propagation of ultrasonic
waves through liquids.
Mechanical
Density changes in many liquids and slurries can be measured and
related to moisture content, resolution up to 0.2% moisture.
• By measuring the moisture level-dependent viscosity of liquids,
pastes and slurries.
The psychrometer (wet and dry bulb
hygrometer)
• Has two temperature sensors,
• one exposed to the atmosphere and one enclosed in a wet wick.
• Air is blown across
• the sensors, which causes evaporation and a reduction in
temperature in the wet sensor.
• The temperature difference between the sensors is related to the
humidity level.
Dew point meter

The dew point is the temperature at which the sample becomes saturated with water.
Assignment, to be submitted in 2 weeks time
Describe the following laboratory techniques for measuring moisture
content.
•1.Water separation
•2.Gravimetric methods
•3.Phase-change methods
•4.Equilibrium relative humidity measurement
Level Sensors and Transducers
• Resistance tape devices.
• Radar microwave / antenna methods
• Pressure-measuring devices (hydrostatic systems)
• Ultrasonic level gauge
• Radiation
• Capacitive
• Hot-wire elements / carbon resistor elements
• Fibre-optic level sensors
• Vibrating level
• Rotating paddle switches
Radar microwave/antenna methods
Pressure measuring devices(hydrostatic
systems)

hydrostatic systems: (a) open-topped vessel; (b) sealed vessel; (c) bubbler unit
Ultrasonic level gauge

Measuring interface positions:

(a)liquid/liquid interface;
(b) liquid/precipitate interface
 Radiation methods
Caesium-137 is a commonly used gamma-ray
source. The radiation level measured by the
detector I is related to the length of liquid in the
path x according to:

where I0 is the intensity of radiation that

would be received by the detector in the
absence of any liquid, µ is the mass
absorption coefficient for the liquid and ρ is
the mass density of the liquid.
Capacitive devices: level sensors
Hot-wire elements/carbon resistor elements
Fibre-optic level sensors
Rotating paddle switches
Flow Sensors and Transducers
1. Differential pressure (obstructive-type) meters
• Orifice plate,
• venture tube,
• flow nozzle
2. Turbine meters
3. Variable area flowmeters (rotameters)
4. Electromagnetic (EM) flowmeters
5. Ultrasonic flowmeters
• Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeters
6. Transit time flowmeters
7. Positive displacement flowmeters
 Differential pressure (obstructive-type)
meters

Figure 20: Obstruction devices: (a) orifice plate; (b) venturi; (c) flow nozzle; (d) Dall flow tube
Orifice plate
Venturi tube
Flow nozzle
Turbine meters

multi-bladed wheel mounted in a pipe along an axis parallel

Electromagnetic flowmeter

EM flowmeters are limited to measuring the volume flow

rate of electrically conductive fluids.
Doppler shift ultrasonic flowmeter
Scattering elements (solid particles, gas bubbles
or eddies) within the flowing fluid,
deflect the ultrasonic energy output from the
transmitter such that it enters the
receiver.
The scattering elements cause a frequency shift
between the transmitted and reflected
ultrasonic energy, and measurement of this shift
enables the fluid velocity to be inferred.