Fetal and embryonic

Development
Fertilization
• This is the fusion of the sperm nucleus to form a diploid cell known as
the zygote.
• The cell membrane of the sperm close to the acrosome will rupture enabling
the enzymes hyaluronidase and protease to penetrate the corona radiata of
the oocyte , a process called acrosome reaction
Steps of Fertilization
• Acrosome reaction occurs and a path through the granulosa (follicle) cells is
made
• Sperm moves by lashing their tails and reach the outer surface of the zona
pellucida.
• The zona pellucida has special receptors for the head of the sperm to bind
• Another acrosomal enzyme digest a path through the zona pellucida
allowing the sperm to move through
• Head of the sperm will fuse with the microvilli surrounding the oocyte and
penetrate the cytoplasm
• Lysosomes of the outer region of the oocyte ( cortical granules), release
their enzymes causing the zona pellucida to thicken creating a fertilization
membrane (cortical reaction)
• Enzymes also destroy sperm receptor sites
Steps of Fertilization
• The entry of the sperm acts as a stimulus for completion of the
second meiotic division of the oocyte which produces the ovum and a
second polar body

• The nucleus of the sperms swells as the chromatids uncoil. At this

stage the nuclei of the sperm and the ovum is called the pronuclei
• The male and female pronucleus fuses creating a zygote which is a
diploid cell
• The zygote begins to divide immediately by mitosis producing two di
Effects of fertilization
• The zygote will develop into a ball of cells called a blastocyte which
embeds itself into the walls of the uterus within 8 days of ovulation
• The outer cells of the blastocyte, the trophoblastic cells, begins to
secrete HCG ( human chorionic gonadotropin ) which has a similar
function to LH
• The function of the HCG is to prevent the degeneration of the corpus
luteum
• The placenta gradually takes over from the corpus luteum from about
10 weeks where it begins to secret most of the progesterone and
estrogen.
• Failure of the corpus luteum before the placenta develop leads to
miscarriage at about 10-12 weeks
Implantation
• As the zygote passes down the oviduct it divides by mitosis through a
process called cleavage.
• Cleavage involves cell division without growth in size and simply reduces in
size
• The cells formed during cleavage are:
• Blastomeres: creates a layer called the trophoblast
• Inner mass: a thicken region of the trophoblast
• Blastocoel: a central cavity filled with liquid formed by the blastomeres
• These regions formed a blastocyst (4-5 weeks)
Implantation Process
• When the blastocyst arrives at the uterus the zona pellucida
disappears over about 2 days
• This allows the cells of the trophoblast to contact the endometrium
• The trophoblast will start the process of invading the uterus wall gaining
nutrients from the endometrium
• The trophoblast cells multiply in the presence of these nutrients and between
6 to 9 days the blastocyst become embedded into the endometrium.
 • Differentiate into an inner layer and an outer layer.
• The outer layer is called the chorion and forms the
Differentiation chorionic villi (finger like process growing into the
endometrium)
of the • Enzymes from the trophoblast cause the blood vessels
in the endometrium to break down and blood from
trophoblast them fills the spaces.
• In early stages of the blastocyst, exchange of nutrients,
oxygen and waste between the its cells and the
maternal blood occurs through the chorionic villi
• Later this function is taken over by the placenta
Early embryonic Development
Development of extra embryonic membranes
• During the development of the chorion two cavities appear within the
inner cell mass and cells lining these give rise to two further
membranes
• The amnion
• Yolk sac
Amnion
• A thin membrane covering the embryo like an umbrella and has a
protective function
• It has cells which secretes amniotic fluid and fills the amniotic cavity
in which the fetus is located
• The amniotic fluid supports the baby and protects it from mechanical shock
• Cells of the inner cell mass between the early amnion and yolk form
the embryonic disc, which gives rise to the embryo
Amnion
• Cells of the disc differentiate to give rise to 3 layers:
• Outer layer ( ectoderm)
• Inner layer ( endoderm)
• Mesoderm
• These three germ cells gives rise to all tissues and organs
( organogenesis)
• The development of these layers is call gastrulation
• Occurs 10 to 11 days after fertilization
• The brain and spinal cord begin to develop inn the third week from a neural
tube and starts at the ectoderm
Placental Development
• A further membrane of chorion called the allantois will develop from
the hind gut
• The chorion, amnion, yolk sac and allantois are called extra embryonic
membranes
• The allantois grown outwards and meet the chorion to form a
structure rich in blood vessels called the allanto-chorion.
• This leads to the development of the placenta
Placenta
• This is an organ that function to allow exchange of materials between
mother and fetus
• Structure
• Consist of cells of the chorion which produces projection s called the chorionic
villi. The villi consist of branches of two vessels of the fetus called
• The umbilical artery
• The umbilical vein
• These blood vessels run between the uterus wall and fetus in the
umbilical cord
• The umbilical cord is a tough structure made from the chorion and amnion,
about 40 cm in length
Placenta
• The maternal part of the placenta has projections from the
endometrium
• Between these projections and the villi are spaces ( intervillous) with
blood
• This blood does not mix with fetal blood
• 10% of the mother’s blood flows through the placenta
Mechanism of uptake across the placenta
• The chorionic villi increases surfaces area for absorption of substances
• The uptake of these substances are done by
• Diffusion, facilitated transport, active transport and pinocytosis
Exchange of nutrients between mother and
fetus
• Water: cross by osmosis
• Glucose, amino acids, lipids, mineral salts and vitamins
• Glucose moves by facilitated diffusion by way of carrier proteins
• Minerals amino acids and vitamins moves by active transport mainly
• Respiratory gases
• Excretory products
Harmful substances that may cross the
placenta
• Nicotine and carbon monoxide from cigarette smoking
• Causes intra-uterine growth retardation ( IUGR)
• A drop below the average birth weight ( 3.40 kg )
• Premature birth
• prenatal death
• Miscarriages
Alcohol
• Crosses the placenta easily
• Reduces fetal growth by 1%
• Causes fetal alcohol syndrome (FAD)
• Symptoms:
• Mental retardation
• Microcephaly ( small head/brain)
• Hyperactivity and poor attention
• Flat face