Basic logical Concepts

Dr Sajid Awan
Associate Professor, AUAACK
 Basic logical Concepts
• Inductive logic
• Deductive logic
• Common pattern:
• Deductive Reasoning
• Inductive Reasoning
 Word of wisdom

• Logic is the great disperser of hazy and confused

thinking: it clears up the fogs which hide from us
our own ignorance, and make us believe that we
understand a subject when we do not. (John
Stuart Mill)
 Basic logical Concepts
• In evaluating any argument, one should always ask two key
questions:
• 1. Are the premises true? And
• 2. Do the premises provide good reasons to accept the
conclusion?
 Bases of logic
• An argument, as that term is used in critical thinking, is a claim defended
with reasons.
• Arguments are composed of one or more premises and a conclusion.
• Premises are statements in an argument offered as evidence or reasons in
support of another statement.
• A statement is a sentence that can be viewed as either true or false.
• A conclusion is the statement in an argument that the premises are
intended to support or prove.
 Question

• What does it mean to say that an argument’s

premises provide “good reasons” for its
conclusion, and how can we know when such
reasons are being offered?
 Deductive arguments
• Examples:
• 1. All humans are mortal.
• Fazeel is human.
• Therefore, Fazeel is mortal.
• 2. If the president Mr. Arif Alvi lives in the Presidency, then he lives in Islamabad.
• The president Mr. Arif Alvi does live in the presidency. So, he lives in Islamabad.
• Conclusions of these arguments flow from the premises with a kind of inescapable logic.
Their premises are intended to provide a kind of rigorous, airtight logical support for
their conclusions.
 Think!

• We think in logic, as we talk in prose, without aiming at

doing so. —John Henry Newman
• The study of logic appeals to no criterion not already
present in the learner’s mind. —C. I. Lewis
 Exercises –deductive reasoning
• Either A was the murderer, or B was the murderer.
• If A was the murderer, then traces of phosphorus should have been found
on the body.
• No traces of phosphorus were found on the body.
• Whodunnit?
 Exercises –deductive reasoning
• The murder did not occur in the library.
• If Adam was the murderer, then the weapon was a revolver.
• Either Hope was the murderer, or Adam was the murderer.
• If Hope was the murderer, then the murder took place in the library.
• Whodunnit? With what weapon?
 Exercises –deductive reasoning
• At a picnic, Mike went for soft drinks for Amy, Brian, Lisa, and Bill, as well as for himself.
• He brought back iced tea, grape juice, Diet Coke, Pepsi, and 7-Up.
• Mike doesn’t like carbonated drinks.
• Amy would drink either 7-Up or Pepsi.
• Brian likes only sodas.
• Lisa prefers the drink she would put lemon and sugar into.
• Bill likes only clear drinks.
• What drinks did Mike bring for each person?
 Inductive arguments
• Simply claim that their conclusions are likely or probable given the
premises offered.
• Examples:
• Gallop Polls show that 57 percent of people favor PTI government.
• Sh. Rashid is in PTI government. He is liked by 57 percent of people.
 Inductive arguments
• The bank safe was robbed last night.
• Whoever robbed the safe knew the safe’s combination.
• Only two people know the safe’s combination: Faizi and Nina.
• Faizi needed money to pay his outstanding debts. He was seen sneaking
around outside the bank last night.
• It is reasonable to conclude, therefore, that Faizi robbed the safe.
 Difference between deductive &
inductive
• Because the standards for evaluating deductive and inductive arguments
are quite different, it is important to understand the difference between
these two types of arguments.
• Deductive arguments try to prove their conclusions with rigorous,
inescapable logic.
• Inductive arguments try to show that their conclusions are plausible or
likely given the premise(s).
 Difference between deduction & induction
• Generally speaking, deduction moves from general premises to particular
conclusions
• Whereas, induction moves from particular premises to general conclusions.
• That, however, is a misconception.
• Example:
• Lincoln was president from 1861 to 1865. (particular premise)
• So, all persons born during Lincoln’s presidency were born in the nineteenth
century. (general conclusion)
 Difference between deduction &
induction
• All of Stephen King’s previous novels have been good. (general premise)
Therefore, Stephen King’s next novel will probably be good. (particular
conclusion)
•To be continued!