Lecture 2

Meaning Analysis and Argument

Identification
UGED1111 LOGIC 2022/23 SUMMER TERM
DR. ARTHUR CHIN

2021/1/25 1
Fourfold Path to Good Thinking (Lau (2011) p.5)

Example:
“It is wrong for us to
eat non-human
animals.”

2
3
 Meaning Analysis
• Literal meaning ( 字面意思 ) of an expression is determined entirely by its
grammatical properties and the conventional meaning of its constituent
words.
• Conversational implicature ( 對談暗示 ) of an expression is the meaning
implicitly conveyed in a particular context, distinct from its literal meaning.
 “Let’s go for a movie tonight.” “I am very tired.”

• Truth of a statement ( 陳述句 ) or proposition ( 命題 ) depends on its literal

meaning rather than conversational implicature.

4
 Ambiguity
• An expression is ambiguous ( 歧義 ) when it can be interpreted as having
more than one literal meaning.

 “Arthur is reading the letter to the editor.”

 「父在母先亡。」

5
 Same literal meaning?
• If two statements have the same literal meaning, then they have the same
truth value in all possible situations.
 If there exists at least one possible situation where one is true while the other is
false, the statements have different literal meaning.
• Do the following have the same literal meaning?
1) The suspect is lying.
2) What the suspect said is not true.

Class Exercise Q1.1 and 2.1-2.2

6
 Method of Definition ( 定義法 )
• Thinking logically often requires first clarifying the meaning of a claim’s key
terms.

A: I think abortion is always immoral B: But what if the pregnancy is due to

because it is the killing of an innocent rape? Besides, is it always wrong to kill
person. an innocent person?

• Definition: a useful technique for meaning clarification

X =df Y

definiendum definiens

7
 Two Kinds of Definition
• Reportive definition ( 報告性定義 ) or lexical definition: A definition that
captures the conventional meaning of a term.

• Stipulative definition ( 規約性定義 ): A definition that assigns a meaning to

a certain term, regardless of whether the term has a conventional meaning.
 IBM defined as an “incredibly boring movie”

8
 Evaluating Reportive Definition: 1
1) Avoid obscurity
• Avoid unclear and metaphorical language insofar as it is reasonably
possible
 “Science is the search for a black cat in a dark room.”
 “Ship is a vessel of considerable size.”

2) Avoid circularity
 “Time is the thing measured by a watch or clock.”

9
 Good definition?

“A chair is a kind of furniture with 4-legs and a flat top allowing people to
sit on it.”

10
 Evaluating Reportive Definition: 2
3) Avoid being too narrow and too wide
• Too wide: the definiens includes things to which the definiendum does not apply
• Too narrow: the definiens fails to include things to which the definiendum applies
 E.g.: “Sexual harassment =df someone’s doing or saying something related to sex
that causes unpleasant feeling to another”

Class Exercise Q3.1

11
 Necessary and Sufficient Condition
• X is sufficient for Y =df It is not possible for X to occur without Y
 “Being a square is sufficient for having 4 sides.”
 Definition “X =df Y” too wide: something’s being Y is not sufficient for it to be X
• X is necessary for Y =df It is not possible for Y to occur without X
 “Oxygen is necessary for human to survive.”
 Definition “X =df Y” too narrow: something’s being Y is not necessary for it to be X
• Four possible ways in which two concepts can be related in terms of N and S
conditions

12
 Different Senses of “Possibility”: 1
1) “It is impossible for a bachelor to be unmarried.”

2) “It is impossible for human to survive without oxygen.”

3) “It is impossible for someone under 18 to be HK’s Chief Executive.”

13
 Different Senses of “Possibility”: 2
• A set of statement(s) is logically possible =df Any set that does not violate
the logical law of non-contradiction
 [All men are immortal.]
 [All apples are fruit. All fruits are healthy. Some apples are not healthy.]

• A set of statement(s) is empirically possible =df Any set that does not violate
the scientific laws of nature that hold in our universe
 [Arthur is 10 feet tall.]
 [Arthur is a human and does not need oxygen to live.]

14
 Different Senses of “Possibility”: 3
• If a set of statement(s) is logically possible, then there is at least one
possible universe in which all its member(s) are true at the same time.
 Logical possibility does not imply empirical possibility.

• If a set of statement(s) is logically impossible, then there is no possible

universe in which all its member(s) are true at the same time.
 Logical impossibility implies empirical impossibility.

Class Exercise Q4

15
 Argument
• An argument ( 論證 ) is a set of statements where an inferential, or a
justificatory relation, is claimed to exist between its members.
 Premise(s) ( 前提 ): Statement(s) claimed to provide reason(s) for, or to justify,
the conclusion
 Conclusion ( 結論 ): Statement claimed to be justified by premise(s)

2021/1/25 16
 Standard Form Argument ( 標準式論證 )
Premise 1: … P1: … 前提 1: …
Premise 2: … P2: …
Premise 3: … 前提 2: …
…… ……..
…….
___________________ ___________________
________________
Conclusion: C: …
結論 : …

▪1 argument: 1 and only 1 conclusion; at least 1 premise

2021/1/25 17
 Heuristics for Identifying Arguments
• Premise Indicators: “because”, “since”, “for”, “given that”, “provided that”, “as”,
“in view of”, “as indicated by”…etc. / 「因為」 , 「 基於」 , 「建基於」
 「因為和已確診的研究員甲同一實驗室工作的人，全部檢測結果均為陰性，甲
是在社區受感染的機會較高。 」

• Conclusion Indicators: “therefore”, “hence”, “thus”, “so”, “it follows that”, “we
may infer that”, “it proves that”, “accordingly”, “consequently”, “as a result”,
“for this reason”…etc. / 「所以」 , 「 故此」 , 「 由此可推論出」
 「城市甲的選舉完全符合選舉法，故此有關選舉是真正的普選。 」

2021/1/25 18
 Non-inferential Passages: 1
1) Mere assertions

• 「我們在公眾地方應佩戴口罩。」

• “Smoking is hazardous to health.”

https://qrius.com/abortion/

2021/1/25 19
 Non-inferential Passages: 2
2) Single conditional statement
• Conditional statement ( 條件述句 ): “If p, then q.” / 「如果…則…。 」
1) Logical connective ( 邏輯連接詞 ): “If…then…”

2) Antecedent ( 前項 ): p

3) Consequent ( 後項 ): q

• In a conditional statement: (i) antecedent claimed to be the sufficient

condition of consequent, and (ii) consequent claimed to be the necessary
condition of antecedent.

2021/1/25 20
 Non-inferential Passages: 3
• A single conditional statement does not constitute an argument.

• Compare the following:

 “If sugary drinks cause heart disease, then sugary drinks should be regulated.”
 “Since sugary drinks cause heart disease, sugary drinks should be regulated.”

21
 Non-inferential Passages: 4
Only 1 person gives an argument: A or B? (UReply)
• During an exam, a student’s cell phone starts ringing. After the exam, one of the
students says the following to the owner of the cell phone:
• A: You failed to turn off your cell phone before entering the exam hall, the loud
ringing disturbed the rest of us when we were trying to concentrate on the exam.
Therefore I think I can say that your behavior shows that you are self-centered
and inconsiderate.
• B: I was almost hit by a car on my way to the exam hall this morning, and I was
completely distracted thinking about that, therefore I have forgotten to turn off
my cell phone.
• (Source: Stan Baronett. 2012. Logic. P.76)

2021/1/25 22
 Non-inferential Passages: 5
4) Explanation: “P. Therefore Q.” may be interpreted as an argument or an
explanation.
• If what comes after “therefore” signifies an accepted fact in the relevant
context, the passage is to be interpreted as an explanation.
 “The area was struck by a heavy rainstorm last night. Therefore landslide happened
this morning.
• If what comes after “therefore” signifies something controversial in the
relevant context, the passage is to be interpreted as an argument.
 “In consuming meat produced by factory farming we are contributing to a lot of
unnecessary suffering. Therefore we should stop eating meat.”

Class Exercise Q5

23
 Reading
Primary: Lau (2011)
• Chapter 3 “Definitions” (Ex.3.2 p.30)
• Chapter 4 “Necessary and Sufficient Conditions” (Ex.4.1-4.3 p.38)
• Chapter 8 “Identifying Arguments” (Ex.8.1 p.73)

Optional
• Hurley (2018): Section 1.2 in Chapter 1 “Basic Concepts” (pp.14-33)

2021/1/25 24