MATHEMATICS

IN THE
MODERN WORLD
CHAPTER 3:
PROBLEM SOLVING AND
REASONING
3.1 Inductive Reasoning
3.2 Deductive Reasoning
3.3 Problem Solving with Patterns
3.4 Polya’s Problem-solving Strategy
LOGICAL REASONING
Logical reasoning is the process of using a rational, systematic series of
steps based on sound mathematical procedures and given statements to
arrive at a conclusion.
 INFERENCES
An inference is a process of drawing conclusions based on the evidence. These are
connections between a given sentence (the “premise”) and some other sentence
(the “conclusion”).
Example:
• If there is someone at the door, the dog will bark. (Assuming this sentence holds
true, there are some other sentences that must also be true.)
• If the dog didn’t bark, there is no one at the door. (Just because the dog
barked doesn’t mean there’s someone at the door.)
There are also a few sentences that are probably true, such as:
• The dog can sense (hear or smell) when someone is at the door.
• The dog belongs to the people who live in the house where the door is located.
 INFERENCES
Based on this premise… …you can infer:

Weather forecast says 80% chance of

It’s a good idea to bring an umbrella
thunderstorms

My throat is sore and my nose is running I have probably caught a cold

Based on this premise… ….you should not infer… because:

With an 80% chance of storms,

Weather forecast says 80% chance There’s a 20% chance of no rain at
even if there are no storms there
of thunderstorms all
will probably still be rain

Antibiotics should only be used if

My throat is sore and my nose is you have a major illness, and
I should take antibiotics
running anyway they usually don’t work on
colds
3.1 INDUCTIVE
REASONING
is a method of reasoning in which the premises are viewed as
supplying some evidence for the truth of the conclusion. The
conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is called
conjecture.
 INDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
Jennifer leaves for school at 7:00 a.m. Jennifer is always on time.
Jennifer assumes, then, that she will always be on time if she
leaves at 7:00 a.m.
 INDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of
the following lists.
a. 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, ?
b. 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, ?
Solution:
a. Each successive number is 5 units larger than the preceding number.
Thus, it can be predicted that the next number in the list is 5 units
larger than 25, which is 30.
b. Observe that all the numbers are perfect squares. Thus, it can be
predicted that the next number to be 36=62.
 INDUCTIVE REASONING
Note: COUNTEREXAMPLE - method of disproving a statement
Example:
11×(1)(101) = 1111
11×(2)(101) = 2222
11×(3)(101) = 3333
11×(4)(101) = 4444
11×(5)(101) = 5555
11×(6)(101) = ?
Simple arithmetic shows that the answer is 6666; hence it is conjectured
that the product of 11 and a multiple of 101 is a number where all digits are
equal. But is 11×(n)(101) = nnnn true for all n (n, a natural number)?
3.2 DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
the process of reasoning from one or more statements (premises)
to reach a logically certain conclusion.
Deduction is when the conclusion, based on the
premises, must be true.
 DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
1.All men are mortal. (First premise)
2.Socrates is a man. (Second premise)
3.Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (Conclusion)
The first premise states that all objects classified as "men"
have the attribute "mortal." The second premise states
that "Socrates" is classified as a "man" – a member of the
set "men." The conclusion then states that "Socrates" must
be "mortal" because he inherits this attribute from his
classification as a "man."
 DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
Consider the following procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the
number by 10, add 8 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract
4.
Solution:
Let n represent the original number.
Multiply n by 10: 10n
Add 8 to the product: 8+10n
Divide the sum by 2: (8+10n)/2=4+5n
Subtract the quotient by 4: 4+5n-4=5n
We started with n and ended with 5n after following the given
procedure. This means that the given procedure produces a number
that is five times the original number.
 DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
Each of the four friends Donna, Sarah, Nikkie, and Xhanelle, has a different pet (fish,
cat, dog, and snake). From the following clues, determine the pet of each
individual:
1. Sarah is older than her friend who owns the cat and younger than her friend who
owns the dog.
2. Nikkie and her friend who owns the snake are both of the same age and are the
youngest members of their group.
3. Donna is older than her friend who owns the fish.
Fish Cat Dog Snake

Donna X2 X3 / X3

Sarah / X1 X1 X1

Nikkie X2 / X2 X2

Xhanelle X2 X3 X3 /
 DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
If x = 4
And if y = 1
Then 2x + y = 9
Example:
If entropy (disorder) in a system will increase unless energy is expended,
And if my living room is a system,
Then disorder will increase in my living room unless I clean it.
Example:
There is no such thing as drought in the West.
California is in the West.
California need never make plans to deal with a drought.
 ABDUCTIVE REASONING
is a form of logical inference which starts with an observation or set of
observations then seeks to find the simplest and most likely explanation.
 ABDUCTIVE REASONING
Example:
The doctor hears her patient’s symptoms, including the
regular shortness of breath on cold days and when exercising
and abduces that the best explanation of these symptoms is
that her patient is an asthma sufferer.
3.3 PROBLEM SOLVING
WITH PATTERNS
 FIBONACCI NUMBERS USING
BINET’S FORMULA
Binet’s formula is an explicit formula used to find the nth term
of the Fibonacci sequence. It is so named because it was
derived by mathematician Jacques Philippe Marie Binet,
though it was already known by Abraham de Moivre.
𝑛 𝑛
1 1+ 5 1− 5
𝐹𝑛 = −
5 2 2
 BINET’S FORMULA EXAMPLE
• Find the 9th Fibonacci Number.
Solution:
Since n = 9, we substitute the value to the formula:
9 9
1 1+ 5 1− 5
𝐹9 = −
5 2 2
F9 = 34
 PASCAL’S TRIANGLE
• Is a triangular array of the binomial coefficients.

PASCAL'S TRIANGLE AND THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

BINOMIAL THEOREM or binomial expansion describes the algebraic expansion
of powers of a binomial.
(a + b)0 = 1
(a + b)1 = a + b
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2 = (a + b)(a2 + 2ab + b2) = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3
3.4 POLYA’S PROBLEM-
SOLVING STRATEGY
 POLYA’S PROBLEM-SOLVING
PROCESS

1. Preparation: Understand the problem

2. Thinking Time: Devise a plan
3. Insight: Carry out the plan
4. Verification: Look back
 PREPARATION:
UNDERSTAND THE PROBLEM
• Learn the necessary underlying mathematical concepts
• Consider the terminology and notation used in the problem:
1. What sort of a problem is it?
2. What is being asked?
3. What do the terms mean?
4. Is there enough information or is more information needed?
5. What is known or unknown?
• Rephrase the problem in your own words.
• Write down specific examples of the conditions given in the
problem.
 THINKING TIME:
DEVISE A PLAN
• You must start somewhere so try something. How are you going to attack the
problem?
• Possible strategies: (i. e. reach into your bag of tricks.)
1. Draw pictures
2. Use a variable and choose helpful names for variables or unknowns.
3. Be systematic.
4. Solve a simpler version of the problem.
5. Guess and check. Trial and error. Guess and test. (Guessing is OK.)
6. Look for a pattern or patterns.
7. Make a list.
• Once you understand what the problem is, if you are stumped or stuck, set the
problem aside for a while. Your subconscious mind may keep working on it.
• Moving on to think about other things may help you stay relaxed, flexible, and
creative rather than becoming tense, frustrated, and forced in your efforts to
solve the problem.
 INSIGHT:
CARRY OUT THE PLAN
• Once you have an idea for a new approach, jot it down
immediately. When you have time, try it out and see if it leads to a
solution.
• If the plan does not seem to be working, then start over and try
another approach. Often the first approach does not work. Do not
worry, just because an approach does not work, it does not mean
you did it wrong. You actually accomplished something, knowing a
way does not work is part of the process of elimination.
• Once you have thought about a problem or returned to it enough
times, you will often have a flash of insight: a new idea to try or a new
perspective on how to approach solving the problem.
• The key is to keep trying until something works.
 VERIFICATION:
LOOK BACK
• Once you have a potential solution, check to see if it works.
1. Did you answer the question?
2.Is your result reasonable?
3. Double check to make sure that all of the conditions related to the
problem are satisfied.
4. Double check any computations involved in finding your solution.
• If you find that your solution does not work, there may only be a simple
mistake. Try to fix or modify your current attempt before scrapping it.
Remember what you tried—it is likely that at least part of it will end up
being useful.
• Is there another way of doing the problem which may be simpler? (You
need to become flexible in your thinking. There usually is not one right way.)
• Can the problem or method be generalized so as to be useful for future
problems?
 REFERENCE:
Mathematics in the Modern World
By: Ethel Cecille Baltazar
Carmelita Ragasa
Justina Evangelista