Global Conference on Biofuels and Bioenergy

Modern Concept of Bio fuel

Production from Organic Waste
Materials for Economic Development

Presented by
Dr. Kishalay Paria
Bentham Ambassador
Assistant Professor
Department of Biotechnology
OIST, Vidyasagar University , India
 Bio fuel?
• The hydrocarbon-rich organic inflammable liquid that derived from
living organisms through biochemical conversion processes.

• Examples include:
– Solid: Wood, manure, Cow dung cake
– Liquid: Bioethanol and Biodiesel
– Gaseous: Biogas
• Bio fuels can be produced from biomass, such as corn or sugar,
vegetable oils or waste feed stocks.
• As bio fuels emit less carbon dioxide (CO2) than conventional
fuels they can be blended with existing fuels as an effective way of
reducing CO2 emissions in the transport sector.
 Biochemical way of bio fuel production
Waste materials

Hydrolysis

Hydrolyzed waste materials

Fat Hydrolysis Carbohydrate Amino acid Protein

Glycolysis TCA cycle or

Fatty acid Gluconeogenesis
Beta oxidation

Acetyl co-A Pyruvate

Fermentation

Ethanol/Methanol/Propanol
 Types of Biofuel
• Primary Biofuels:  • Secondary Biofuels: 
The organic materials The materials which result
which are used in an from the processing of
unprocessed form such biomass such as liquid
as fuel wood, wood fuels (ethanol and
chips and pellets, biodiesel).
primarily for heating,
cooking, electricity
production.
 Example of biofuel
• The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) publishes data on four major categories of
biofuels that qualify for use in the federal RFS Program:
• Ethanol—an alcohol fuel that is blended with petroleum gasoline for use in vehicles and
accounted for the largest shares of U.S. biofuel production (85%) and consumption (82%) in
2021.
• Biodiesel—a biofuel that is usually blended with petroleum diesel for consumption and
accounts for the second-largest shares of U.S. biofuel production (11%) and consumption
(12%) in 2021.
• Renewable diesel—a fuel chemically similar to petroleum diesel fuel for use as a drop-in fuel
or a petroleum diesel blend with small but growing U.S. production and consumption.
Renewable diesel's percentage shares of total U.S. biofuels production and consumption
were about 3% and 5% respectively in 2021.
• Other biofuels—include renewable heating oil, renewable jet fuel (sustainable aviation fuel,
alternative jet fuel, biojet), renewable naphtha, renewable gasoline, and other emerging
biofuels that are in various stages of development and commercialization.
• Gaseous fuels that may be compressed for use as a gaseous biofuel or liquefied for use as a
liquid biofuel include biogas (renewable natural gas) and hydrogen produced using renewable
resources.
 Generations of biofuels:

• Bio fuels are generally classified into three

categories

• First-generation bio fuels – 

• Second-generation bio fuels – .
• Third-generation bio fuels – .
 First Generation biofuels
• First Generation biofuels are produced directly from food crops by
abstracting the oils for use in biodiesel or producing bioethanol through
conventional methods like fermentation.
• Crops such as wheat and sugar are the most widely used feedstock for
bioethanol while rapeseed oil has proved a very effective crop for use in
biodiesel.
• First generation biofuels have a number of associated problems.
• These biofuels can produce Negative Net energy gains, releasing more
carbon in their production than their feedstock’s capture in their growth.
• The most contentious issue with first generation biofuels is ‘fuel vs food’.
• Biofuels from foodgrains has been blamed for the increase in food prices
over the last couple of years.
 Second generation biofuel
• They are produced from non-food crops such as
wood, organic waste, food crop waste and specific
biomass crops, therefore eliminating the main
problem with first generation biofuels.
• Second Generation biofuels are also aimed at being
more cost competitive in relation to existing fossil fuel.
• Life cycle assessments of second-generation biofuels
have also indicated that they will increase Positive net
energy gains over coming another of the main
limitations of first-generation biofuels.
 Third generation biofuel
• The Third Generation of biofuels takes advantage of specially engineered
energy crops such as algae.
• The algae are cultured to act as a low-cost, high-energy and entirely
renewable feedstock.
• It is predicted that algae will have the potential to produce more energy
per acre than conventional crops.
• Algae can also be grown using land and water unsuitable for food
production.
• A further benefit of algae-based biofuels is that the fuel can be
manufactured into a wide range of fuels such as diesel, petrol and jet
fuel.
• It is potentially carbon neutral (the same amount of carbon is absorbed
and emitted).
 Fourth generation biofuel
• Four Generation Bio-fuels are aimed at not only producing sustainable energy
but also a way of capturing and storing CO2.
• Biomass materials, which have absorbed CO2 while growing, are converted into
fuel using the same processes as second-generation biofuels.
• This process differs from second and third generation production as at all
stages of production the carbon dioxide is captured using processes such as
oxy-fuel combustion.
• The carbon dioxide can then be geo-sequestered by storing it in old oil and gas
fields or saline aquifers.
• This carbon capture makes fourth generation biofuel production carbon
negative rather than simply carbon neutral, as it is locks away more carbon than
it produces.
• This system not only captures and stores carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
but it also reduces CO2 emissions by replacing fossil fuels.
 Low cost available resources in India

• Agricultural waste
• Fishery waste (dry fish waste, shell fish waste,
fish market waste)
• Flower market waste
• Vegetable market waste
• Meat shop waste
 Fishery waste act as substrate of biofuel
• Every year billions of tons of fish wastes are produced by fish
processing units. These wastes which dumped into the
environment that causes degradation of land.
• An alternative solution for the problem involves their processing
into biofuel, pharmacological components, fertilizer and fodder.
Biofuel is a trending concept and an alternative for present day
fuels. Biofuels are pollution free and thus are advantageous over
current fuels. Biofuels are produced from organic waste,
seaweed, and micro-algae. The current research on fish wastes
for the production of biodiesel is mainly because of their
nontoxic and biodegradable nature.
• Biofuels can be obtained from organic wastes (including
vegetable wastes, animal wastes, and fish wastes , micro-algae,
seaweeds and plants such as Jatropha sp.
• The extraction of biofuel from plant materials such as vegetable
wastes and plants is not practical. Planting and cultivation assets
are unfavorable, obtaining biofuel from waste materials yields oil
which can then be processed to yield biodiesel, but its physical
and chemical characteristics do not match that of the currently
used fuel and are not acceptable to current engines.
• The fish industry is one of the world’s largest industries where tons of fish are used
daily. India is the second largest producer of fish with 5.43% of the global production.

• Fish production during 2009–10 was found to be 78.51 lakh tones. Every year a billion
tons of fish are utilized for edible purpose; waste non-edible parts include head, viscera,
dorsal fins, tail, skin, and liver. These waste non-edible parts are considered to be
worthless garbage and discarded without any recovery of valuable products by dumping
on land or hauling into the ocean.

• India generates 2 million metric tonnes of by-products due to fish processing. The
organic compounds present in the wastes have high biological oxygen demand which
when not managed properly pose adverse environmental effects such as generation of
toxic hydrogen sulfide gas, increased gathering of scavengers in discharge locations, and
noxious conditions caused by odors, bacteria and waste decomposition.

• The most important environment-friendly and profitable option for utilization of fish
waste includes animal feed supplements, aquaculture feed, fishmeal and fish silage,
renewable energy in the form of biodiesel and biogas [10,19], composting for production
of organic fertilizers, extraction of natural pigments, extraction of novel and industrial
enzymes like proteases [20,21], cosmetics, pharmaceutical industries such as collagen, fish
protein hydrolysate, fish bone extracts, and polyunsaturated fatty acids [16,22–24]. In this
paper we review the processing and extraction methodologies of biofuels, purification,
and their efficiency.
 Way of liquid biofuel production
• Biodiesel can be extracted using various methods
such as:
• microwave assisted-lipid extraction
• transesterification
• single step transesterification using alkaline catalyst,
• two stage reaction process
• separation process
• conventional processes including wet rendering and
dry rendering
 Transesterification
• Transesterification is the basic step that yields bio-fuel products which is
involved into three steps triglyceride to diglyceride followed by monoglyceride.
These monoglycerides upon reaction with methoanol result in the formation of
FAME (biodiesel) and crude glycerol.

• The step prior to the transesterification is fish oil production.

• Fish waste feed into cooker at 100 degree centigrade moved to the
Biomass (remained in expeller).
• Expeller
Liquid (54% water, 4% solids, 42% oil).

(Oil is obtained by
Liquid biomass oil solvent
esterification
process)

Moved to further esterification process. Fig: FISH WASTESFEED

INTO COOKER
 The stoichiometric ratio for transesterification reaction is 3:1 alcohol to
oil molar ratio, experiments have shown that a molar ratio ranging from
6:1 to 12:1 would result in the most optimal transesterification of
triglycerides into FAME. Using a homogenous catalyst, it has been
observed that 1 wt.% of catalyst is optimal for the transesterification of
triglycerides.
25 ml of waste fish oil is mixed with 1 wt.% of catalyst (CH3ONa).
Based on earlier work using frying oil, 40 vol.% of methanol was
considered an optimum amount for transesterification. During
optimization, the same volume ratio of methanol to oil was found to be
optimum to obtain maximum yield of biodiesel from waste fish oil.

40 vol.% of methanol + Feedstock .

Products kept in separation funnel.

Fig: SEPARATION OF
BIODIESEL & GLYCERIN

Clear observation of biodisel and glycerol

 Microwave assistedlipid extraction
method
• The fish wastes were dried in a solar air heater (55–60C) and ground to
fine powder.

• In the conventional method, solvents such as chloroform, methanol

and distilled water were used in the ratio 1:2:0.8 and mixed with the
biomass for 24 hours.

• The microwave assisted lipid extraction was done for 10 min at 80

degree C

• The lipid was separated from solvent by filtration and concentrated

using a rotary evaporator. For the efficiency of extraction, the total
crude lipid content can be estimated by % dry cell weight.

• This was continued by the microwave assisted transesterification for

the conversion of obtained crude fish lipids to fatty acid methyl esters.

• Some conditions provided include: 6:1 methanol to lipid ratio at 65

degree C for 10min in the presence of 1.5 wt.% KOH catalysts with Fig: DRIED FISH WASTE
magnetic stirrer bar which allows continuous stirring. The acquired
biodiesel is separated from glycerol by centrifugation.
 Two stage reaction process
Fish wastes are collected
washed and allowed to boil with water as a solvent.
the oil collected from the solvent by separating funnel.
the obtained oil is taken further for the acid and alkali esterification process
to yield biodiesel

The fish waste oil was added with methanol at the oil to methanol molar
ratio 1:6 then added with 2% H2SO4 acid catalysts.
After esterification, the liquid separates into two layers when suspended in a
separating funnel.
This is followed by alkaline
esterification where the resulted oil
oil (top layer) liquid layer (bottom layer) is again taken in a three-neck flask).
• The 2% NaOH solution was dissolved in methanol and mixed with the oil.
The oil, methanol, and NaOH was transesterified for 60min.

biodiesel settles at the top the glycerol at the bottom.

Then it is purified by adding distilled water and shaking for 5min. The
biodiesel is kept at 90C in an oven to remove the moisture.
 Biogas production
• The main method for the production of biodiesel will be
transesterification but the methods for producing
different by-product along with the biodiesel will be
different. The biodisel production process is based on
obtaining glycerin, heat and electricity as the by-product.
If a byproduct like biogas is to be produced, then
anaerobic digestion should be carried out between the
process steps. Oil-free fish waste (cake) can be used in
biogas production. Manure and sewage sludge could be
utilized together with fish waste. The digestated can be
used as fertilizer. Anaerobic digestion.
 Biogas production
• Anaerobic digestion is a collection of processes by which micro-
organisms breakdown biodegradable materials in the absence of
air. Some micro-organism has been used for this process like
Acetogens and Methanogens which convert the organic acid into
methane. The final products from anaerobic digestion are digestate
including a variety of nutrients, and biogas containing CH4 (50–
75%), CO2 (25–45%) and by products such as H2S.
• The decomposition process is composed of 4 steps such as
a) Hydrolysis
b) Acidogenesis
c) Acetogenesis
d) Methanogenesis
 Co-digestion
• Anaerobic digestion of biomass is a commonly used
process utilizing troublesome waste for producing biogas.
Anaerobic digestion of fish wastes is also possible but is
currently not much used.
• Fish wastes have great potential as a source of high
valued organic carbon for methane production but also
have limitations such as high content of ammonia and
nitrogen. The anaerobic treatments of fish wastes are
possible with co-digestion.
• Co-digestion involves the mixing of the fish wastes with
sludge mostly or other wastes, so that biogas can be
obtained efficiently.
• The main issue involved in co-digestion is the balancing of
various parameters such as macro and micro nutrients,
C:N ratio, pH, toxic compounds and dry matter. The
method is carried out in mesophilic temperature using
Automatic Methane Potential Test System (AMTPS II).
This equipment automatically measures methane
production from batch test
 Substrate for biogas production

• Biogas yield is influenced by a variety of parameters, including substrate type and

composition, temperature, moisture, bioreactor design, and microbial composition. However,
depending on the type of substrate used, biogas can have a wide range of results. Biogas has
been produced using a variety of substrates, including plant and animal wastes, and industrial
wastes such as brewery wastes and carbonated soft drink sludge (Suhartini et al., 2021).
• Biogas can also be created from a range of sources, including rice straw, 
municipal solid wastes, wastes dairy manure, chicken wastes, and food wastes, according to
several researchers (Khalid et al., 2011, Marañón et al., 2012, Zhang et al., 2013, 
Fernández-Rodríguez et al., 2014, Gu et al., 2014, Nualsri et al., 2016). Table 1 presents a
complete overview of the biogas production capacity of various substrates, indicating that
biogas may be efficiently produced from a wide range of organic and waste resources.
Overall, the capacity of the anaerobic digestion process to produce biogas, which can be used
as a long-term source of heat and power, is undisputed. However, further research is required
to expand the potential for biogas application and commercialization. Isolating novel bacterial
strains capable of producing methane in severe environments could unlock even more
potential. Field studies are also required to optimize the factors impacting anaerobic
digestion to achieve maximal substrate conversion into biogas (Nualsri et al., 2016).
 Chemical composition of biogas
Compound Percentage

1 Hydrogen sulfide(H2S) 0 to 3%
2 Nitrogen (N2) 0 to 5%
3 Oxygen (O2) 0 to 2%
4 Methane (CH4) 50 to 85%
5 Hydrogen (H2 ) 0 to 1%
6 Carbon dioxide (CO2) 5 to 50%
Sl No. Substrate Temperature (°C) Digestion Time References
1 Food Waste 37 225 Scano et al., 2014
2 Goat manure 35 55 Marañón et al., 20
12
3 Rice straw 37 40 Zhang et al., 2013
4 Municipal solid 35 200 Song et al., 2014
5 Fruit wastes and 35 70 Cheng and Zhong,
vegetable wastes 2014
6 Fruit wastes and 36 160 Fernández-Rodríg
dairy manure uez et al., 2014
7 Corn straw 37 35 Nagao et al., 2012
8 Wheat straw 35 45 Gu et al., 2014
9 Poultry manure 55 20 Nagao et al., 2012
10 Waste activated 37 10 Zhang et al., 2013
sludge
11 Asparagus stem 35 60 Abouelenien
et al., 2010
Basic concept of bio fuel production
• DECONSTRUCTION 
• Producing advanced biofuels (e.g., cellulosic ethanol and renewable hydrocarbon fuels) typically involves a multistep
process. First, the tough rigid structure of the plant cell wall—which includes the biological molecules cellulose,
hemicellulose, and lignin bound tightly together—must be broken down. This can be accomplished in one of two ways:
high temperature deconstruction or low temperature deconstruction. 
• High-Temperature Deconstruction 
High-temperature deconstruction makes use of extreme heat and pressure to break down solid biomass into liquid or
gaseous intermediates. There are three primary routes used in this pathway:
• Pyrolysis
• Gasification
• Hydrothermal liquefaction.
• During pyrolysis, biomass is heated rapidly at high temperatures (500°C–700°C) in an oxygen-free environment. The
heat breaks down biomass into pyrolysis vapor, gas, and char. Once the char is removed, the vapors are cooled and
condensed into a liquid “bio-crude” oil.
• Gasification follows a slightly similar process; however, biomass is exposed to a higher temperature range (>700°C) with
some oxygen present to produce synthesis gas (or syngas)—a mixture that consists mostly of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen.
• When working with wet feedstocks like algae, hydrothermal liquefaction is the preferred thermal process. This process
uses water under moderate temperatures (200°C–350°C) and elevated pressures to convert biomass into liquid bio-
crude oil.
• Low-Temperature Deconstruction 
Low-temperature deconstruction typically makes use of biological catalysts called enzymes or chemicals to breakdown
feedstocks into intermediates. First, biomass undergoes a pretreatment step that opens up the physical structure of
plant and algae cell walls, making sugar polymers like cellulose and hemicellulose more accessible. These polymers are
then broken down enzymatically or chemically into simple sugar building blocks during a process known as hydrolysis.
• UPGRADING
• Following deconstruction, intermediates such as crude bio-oils,
syngas, sugars, and other chemical building blocks must be
upgraded to produce a finished product. This step can involve either
biological or chemical processing.
• Microorganisms, such as bacteria, yeast, and cyanobacteria, can
ferment sugar or gaseous intermediates into fuel blendstocks and
chemicals. Alternatively, sugars and other intermediate streams,
such as bio-oil and syngas, may be processed using a catalyst to
remove any unwanted or reactive compounds in order to improve
storage and handling properties.
• The finished products from upgrading may be fuels or bioproducts
ready to sell into the commercial market or stabilized intermediates
suitable for finishing in a petroleum refinery or chemical
manufacturing plant. 
 Traditional source of biomass for biofuel production

Sunflowe 25–35%
r oil
Soybean 15–20
oil
Rapeseed
oil
Peanut
oil[ Coconut oil
Olive oil [
Canola oil
Palm oil
 The benefits and prospects of microbial biofuel

• Biofuels are developed as a substitute for petroleum because of their nontoxic, sulfur-free, biodegradable nature, originating from
the renewable sources.
• Biofuels are a renewable energy source. If carbon imprisoned in fossil fuels is reintroduced into the carbon cycle today, the
generation of GHGs, which traps heat in the atmosphere, is expected to produce detrimental consequences on the climate. GHGs are
created in a variety of ways, including the burning of plant and fossil fuels for power production and transportation (
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007), which produces anthropogenic CO2; animal husbandry, which creates methane;
and deforestation, which reduces the available natural carbon sinks ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). Since the
transportation industry expands at a 3% annual pace (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2010) and emits the greatest amount
of GHGs, this might be mitigated by employing renewable energy sources, such as biofuels.
• Microorganisms may ferment a wide range of carbohydrates to produce several different fuel molecules, including those utilized in
transportation and power generation. Microbial biofuels have the added benefit of being both renewable and environmentally
beneficial (Gientka et al., 2017). By utilizing the ability of diverse microorganisms to exploit and break down agro-industrial wastes,
such as bagasse, molasses, stover, grain husks, and seed cakes (J. curcas seed cake) (Kumar and Kumar, 2017, Kumar et al., 2018, 
Madakka et al., 2020), microbial biofuel production technologies reduce environmental waste while lowering GHG emissions.
• Microorganisms are everywhere, and they may be controlled in a variety of ways to improve specific features. Several countries are
considering biofuels as a replacement for fossil fuels to lessen their dependency on oil imports (Madakka et al., 2021).
• Most of these fuels were alcohols derived from starch or sugar fermentation or essential oils (Antoni et al., 2007). Microorganisms
can convert nearly any type of biomass into compounds that can be utilized as transportation biofuels. Despite the fact that ethanol,
methane, butanol, and other biofuels can be produced almost as efficiently as crude oil refining products, this method is not only to
blame for global warming, but also hazardous to the environment (Kumar and Kumar, 2017).
 Global aspect of biofuel
• The USA is the largest producer of bioethanol, while
the EU is the largest producer of biodiesel. The
energy content in the global production of
bioethanol and biodiesel is 2.2 and 1.5 EJ per year,
respectively
• In 2019, worldwide biofuel production provided 3%
of the world's fuels for road transport, and a very
small amount of aviation biofuel.
• Biofuels represent around 3% of road transport fuels
in use around the world.
 Biofuel producing company
Company Biofuel types

United States High plains bioenergy LLC Biodiesel from animal fats
United States UrbanX renewables group Renewable diesel from waste frying oil
United States DuPont Danisco Cellulosic ethanol from waste biomass

Canada Iogen corporation

Brazil GranBio/GraalBio
China Gushan environmental energy Biodiesel from recycled cooking oil
China Fujian Zhongde energy co. Biodiesel from waste vegetable oil
limited

Singapore Nextgeneration biomass to Biodiesel from residual animal fat

liquid diesel
Denmark Biogasol Cellulosic ethanol from wheat straw
Spain Abengoa Cellulosic ethanol from waste biomass
Norway Weyland Australia
Australia Ethtec Cellulosic ethanol from wood
Limitations to the production and use of microbial biofuels

• The most significant barrier to the application of microbial biofuels is the ethical considerations. Biofuel programmers are concerned that they have increased
global food costs and will continue to do so as firms and governments divert agricultural supplies to supply electricity and transportation fuels. On the other side,
a greater concentration on secondary biofuel production is helping to minimize this (Siqueira et al., 2020). While there are several other barriers to the
development of secondary biofuels, the change from food to biomass-based feedstock for bioenergy production might significantly reduce the food versus fuel
dilemma. Biomass feedstock are being used to produce livestock feed (Srivastava et al., 2018).
• Grass and certain crop wastes can be used as cattle fodder (such as corn stover). Cattle pasture is typically provided in less productive, prone to erosion, or arid
conditions; the same landscapes are being examined for biofuel feedstock production (Rodionova et al., 2017). As a result, biofuel producers may face
competition for herbaceous feedstock from animal farms (grasses and crop residues). Expensive pretreatment techniques have hampered the growth of second-
generation biofuels by raising the costs of production. Using Trichoderma reesei cellulases to hydrolyze cellulose costs were approximately 2.5–5 cents for every
liter of ethanol produced (Boboescu et al., 2016, Rodionova et al., 2017, Srivastava et al., 2018).
• Biodiesel production has a low land yield and competes with agricultural land that may be used to grow food. Consequently, the high cost of biodiesel is a major
barrier to its adoption. The oil is inedible due to its anti-nutrient components, and its use in non-biodiesel manufacturing does not compete with food. This is the
most essential benefit of J. curcas oil (Ma et al., 2018). University of Ilorin, the largest research plantation in Nigeria, has set aside hectares of land for the
research and production of J. curcas oil-based biodiesel. Adapting the continuous transesterification process and recovering high-quality glycerol from glycerol
wastes are two significant ways being investigated now to reduce biodiesel costs and pave the way for sustainable local biodiesel production (
Christophe et al., 2012, Ambat et al., 2018, Ma et al., 2018). In addition to the high cost and energy requirements of the transesterification process and the
subsequent separation of biodiesel from glycerol, there is a scarcity of low-cost vegetable oil feedstock (Ambat et al., 2018).
• Several studies have focused on enzymatic transesterification using lipase and whole-cell biocatalysts technology for biodiesel synthesis from microalgae to
overcome these limitations (Connor and Liao, 2009). Additionally, not every automobile owner is eager to utilize ethanol in their vehicle; as a result, ethanol in
gasoline/ethanol mixes has been met with skepticism and criticism in some parts of the world (Sakuragi et al., 2011). Drivers in Germany, for example, defied a
government-imposed speed limit by blocking a government-mandated ethanol mix attempt with a large-scale active boycott, putting the German government's
ambitious biofuel program on hold. As a transportation fuel, bioethanol is not as efficient as gasoline. Excessive alcohol in alcohol fuel blends is reported to
damage the aluminum fuel system components (Sakuragi et al., 2011).
• The use of biobutanol, which is less corrosive than ethanol and does not involve the modification of existing equipment, such as pumps, tanks, and pipes,
mitigates these shortcomings (Sakuragi et al., 2011). Biobutanol is a better fuel molecule than ethanol since it can completely replace gasoline or be blended
with it at any quantity, whereas ethanol can only be blended up to 85% (Amaro et al., 2011).
• The EU, which is also the largest biodiesel consumer, produces 82% of all biofuels. Attempts to produce oil-bearing crops for the production of biodiesel for the
EU market have been made in Africa. Some have proved disastrous, such as the ambitious J. curcas biodiesel project by Sun Biofuels in the Kisarawe District,
Tanzania, which was allocated an estimated 8000 ha of land. The people were left penniless, jobless, and without ancestral land to live because the project never
transpired. Growing demand for biofuels in the United Kingdom and the EU has encouraged British enterprises to take the lead in Africa. Eleven British firms
were linked to half of the 3.2 million hectares of biofuel land identified (Shanmugam et al., 2020).
• Up to 6 million hectares have been gained across Africa, according to ActionAid. However, there is considerable potential for abuse because most landowners are
uneducated and unaware of their rights (Shanmugam et al., 2020). Similar challenges exist in other countries, such as Nigeria, wherein naive farmers are tricked
into producing and providing the EU with “special” varieties of J. curcas (Amaro et al., 2011, Shanmugam et al., 2020).
Low cost available resources in India
• Agricultural waste
• Fishery waste (dry fish waste, shell fish waste,
fish market waste)
• Flower market waste
• Vegetable market waste
• Meat shop waste
 conclusion
• India has a vast coastal area with a colossal consumption of fish. However, in
the present scenario, since the fish markets are scattered all over the
country, the waste parts are usually disposed of as solid waste with no
proper application. These wastes could be channelized into local biodiesel
plants as an economic feedstock for high-quality biodiesel production. Large
scale projects like the ones mentioned have been running quite successfully
throughout the world particularly in developing countries. The process to
extract the fish oil from the raw left over materials and then converting that
oil to biodiesel is energy intensive, however, some of the biodiesel produced
can be used to run the machinery. This would make the process self-
sustainable and totally greenhouse gas emission free. Fishing ports could set
up cooperatives to collect fish waste and produce fish oil, fishmeal and
biodiesel. This would mean the construction of only one big plant instead of
many smaller ones; reducing costs and increasing quantity and potential.