Civil Engineering Materials &

Construction CE-112

Quarrying of Stones &

Introduction to cement
 Quarrying of Stones
Quarrying it is the art of taking stones of various
sizes from natural rocks.
Quarry it is the part of the natural rock from which
useful material is obtained.
Quarrying Methods
 Excavation Method
 Wedging Method
 Heating Method
 Blasting Method
Excavation Method This method is applied
when stones are lying buried in earth. On
west coast laterite stone blocks are quarried
by this method.
Wedging Method This method is suitable
quarrying soft stratified rocks. By this
method slabs of required sizes could be
quarried with minimum of wastage. steel
wedges and pins are used.
Heating Method in this method Rock
surface is heated for several hours which
result into unequal expansion and crushing
of rock into small pieces.
Blasting Method in this method quarrying
of stone is done with explosives.
Apparatuses used in this method are jumper
boring bar.
Quarrying Tools
 Blasting Procedure
Boring. Drilling of holes in rock using jumper, manual
drilling or machine drilling using mechanical power.
Charging Placing of required quantity of explosive
charge in the hole at desired location. Quantity depends
upon explosive strength, blasting method, number of
holes, type and mass of rock.
Tamping Placing of charge, explosion cable
(cordite), and sealing off the escape of gases
Firing explosion mechanism (electrical or non-
electrical detonators) or fuse ignition
 Blasting Precautions
 Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early
morning. Blasting should be made public with sufficient
time allowed to retire to safe distance
 200 m radius danger zone should be marked with red flags
 First aid should be made available
 Proper record of number of charges prepared, fired and
exploded to account for misfires
 Explosive should be handled carefully
 Detonators and explosive should not be stored and kept
together
 Casings should be handled with rubber gloves.
 Cement
 cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens
independently, and can bind other materials together.
 Cements in general is cohesive materials which are
capable of bonding together particles of solid matter
into compact durable mass.
 Itsquick setting property, strength h and ease with
which it can be used under variety of conditions has
revolutionized the concept construction and made it
most popular cementing material.
 Cement History
 Clay was used as cementing material – by Assyrians and
Babylonians
 Lime and gypsum were used as binder material – by Egyptians
in pyramids
 Calcareous cements, like limestone was used– by Romans
 Joseph Aspedin of Yorkshire (UK) in 1824 formed Portland
cement by heating a mixture of limestone & fine clay expelling
carbonic acid gas
 Isaac C. Johnson in 1845 invented cement by burning limestone
and clay to form clinker
 Uses of Cement
 Masonry work, plastering, joints for pipes &
drains.
 Used in concrete for laying floors, roofs,
constructing lintels, beams, stairs,
pillars/columns etc.
 Used in manufacturing of precast pipes, piles.
 Importantengineering structures e.g. bridges,
dams, tunnels, etc.
 Chemical Composition of Cement
Oxide %age Function
Lime (CaO) 60-65 Controls strength and soundness
Silica (SiO2) 20-25 Gives strength. Excess causes slow
setting
Alumina (Al2O3) 4-8 Quick setting. Excess lowers strength
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) 2-4 Color. Helps in fusion of ingredients
Magnesium oxide 1-3 Color and hardness. Excess causes
(MgO) cracking
Na2O 0.1-0.5 Residues. Excess causes cracking
Sulphur trioxide 1-2 Makes cement sound
(SO3)
 Functions of ingredients of cement
Lime (CaO)
 It is the major constituent of cement . Its proportion
is important.
 The excess makes the cement unsound and causes
the cement to expand and disintegrate.
 In case of deficiency, the strength of cement is
decreased and cement sets quickly.
 The right proportion makes cement sound and
strong.
 Functions of ingredients of cement
Silica (SiO2)
 It imparts strength to the cement due to formation
of dicalcium silicate (2CaO SiO2 or C2S) and
tricalcium silicate (3CaO SiO2 or C3S).
 Silicain excess provides greater strength to the
cement but at the same time it delays its setting
time.
 Functions of ingredients of cement
Alumina (Al2O3)
 It imparts quick setting quality to the cement.
 Itacts as a flux (rate of flow of energy) and
lowers the temperature.
 Alumina in excess reduces the strength of
cement.
 Functions of ingredients of cement
Iron oxide (Fe2O3)

 It provides color, hardness and strength to

cement.
 Italso helps the fusion of raw materials during
manufacture of cement.
 Harmful ingredient of cement

 Alkali oxides (K2O and Na2O): if the amount of

alkali oxides exceeds 1%, it leads to the failure
of concrete made from that cement.
 Magnesium oxide (MgO): if the content of MgO
exceeds 5%, it causes cracks after mortar or
concrete hardness
 Cement Types
 Rapid Hardening or High Early Strength Cement
 Quick setting Cement
 High alumina Cement
 Portland slag Cement
 Low Heat Cement
 Air Entraining Portland Cement
 White Cement
 Coloured Cement
 Portland Pozzolana Cement
Rapid Hardening or High Early Strength Cement
 Gains strength faster than Ordinary Portland cement.
 Initialand final setting times are same as Ordinary
Portland cement.
 Contains more tri-calcium silicate (C3S) and finely ground
 Emits more heat during setting, therefore unsuitable for
mass concreting.
 It is used for structures subjected to load e.g. repair of
bridges and roads etc.
 It is more costly than ordinary cement.
 Quick setting Cement

 Sets faster than OPC

 Initial setting time is 5 minutes
 Final setting time is 30 minutes
 Used for concreting in underwater or running water
 Mixing and placing has to be faster to avoid initial
setting prior to laying
 High alumina Cement

 Black chocolate color cement it is produced by fusing bauxite

and limestone in correct proportion, at high temperature
 Resists attack of chemicals, sulphates, seawater, frost action and
also fire. Useful in chemical plants
 Ultimate strength is much higher than OPC
 Initial setting time is 2 hours, and the final setting time take place
immediately after that
 Most heat emitted in first 10 hours so good for freezing
temperatures in cold regions (below 18°C)
 Develops strength rapidly, useful during wartime emergency
 Portland slag Cement
Produced by mixing Portland cement clinker,
gypsum and granulated blast furnace slag
Cheaper than OPC, blackish grey
Lesser heat of hydration. Initial setting 1 hour and
final setting 10 hours
Better resistance to soils, sulphates of alkali
metals, alumina, iron and acidic waters
Suitable for marine works, mass concreting
Due to low early strength, not suitable for RCC
 Low Heat Cement

 Low percentage (5%) of tri-calcium aluminates (C3A)

and silicate (C3S) and high (46%) of di-calcium silicate
(C2S) to keep heat generation low
 It has low lime content and less compressive strength.
 Initial and final setting times nearly same as OPC
 Very slow rate of developing strength
 Not suitable for ordinary structures
Shuttering required for long duration so cost will
increase
Prolonged curing is required
 Air Entraining Portland Cement
 OPC with small quantity of air entraining materials
( oils, fats, fatty acids) ground together
 Air
is entrained in the form of tiny air bubbles during
chemical reaction
 Dueto these bubbles Concrete is more plastic, more
workable, more resistant to freezing
 Strength of concrete reduces somewhat due to air
 Quantityof air entrained should not be more than 5%
to prevent excess strength loss
 White Cement

Itis the cement with pure white color and

have same properties as those of OPC.
It is manufactured from white chalk and clay
free from Iron oxide.
Instead of coal, oil fuel is used for burning of
this cement.
It is much more costly than ordinary cement .
 Coloured Cement
 By mixing suitable pigments OPC could be
given red or brown color.
 For other colors 5 to 10 % of desired pigments
are ground with white cement.
 Pigmentsused should be chemically inactive and
durable under light, sun or weather.
 Portland Pozzolana Cement

 It is produced by grinding Portland cement

clinker and pozzolana (calcined clay fly ash).
 It has same properties as ordinary Portland
cement.
 Produces less heat of hydration and offers great
resistance to attacks of sulphate and acidic waters
 Ultimate strength is more than OPC but setting
timings are same as OPC.
Puzzolona
 Other Varieties of Cement

 High Alumina Cement

 Quick Setting Cement
 Blast Furnace Slag Cement
 White Cement
 Colored Cement
 Expanding Cement
 Hydrophobic Cement
Chemical Composition of Locally made Cement

% Oxides Lucky Askary Bestway Kohat Mustehkam Cherat

SiO2 20.78 20.12 21 20.78 20.75 21.24
Al2O3 5.11 5.53 5.04 5.81 5.3 5.56
Fe2O3 3.17 3.47 3.24 2.99 4.26 3.24
CaO 60.89 62.3 61.7 62.18 61.24 63.53
MgO 3 1.71 2.56 1.52 2.03 0.93
SO3 1.74 2.29 1.51 1.89 1.82 2.55
LOI 2.31 1.45 1.83 2.31 1.53 1.24
IR 0.65 0.6 .54 .75 0.74 0.64
Free Lime 1.02 1.14 .98 .68 0.85 0.55