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DNA
mRNA
5
New
protein
Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6
DNA
DNA
mRNA
5
DNA
mRNA
5
New
protein
Plasma
membrane
of target
cell 6
Second-messenger system
1. Hormone (first messenger) binds to a membrane
receptor
2. Activated receptor sets off a series of reactions that
activates an enzyme
3. Enzyme catalyzes a reaction that produces a
second-messenger molecule (such as cyclic AMP,
known as cAMP)
4. Oversees additional intracellular changes to promote
a specific response in the target cell
Figure 9.1b Mechanisms of hormone action. Slide 1
Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP
1 2 3
Second
cAMP messenger
4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell
Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Receptor
protein
Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
1 2
Receptor
protein
Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP
1 2 3
Second
cAMP messenger
Receptor
protein
Cytoplasm
Hormone (first
messenger)
Enzyme
ATP
1 2 3
Second
cAMP messenger
4
Receptor
protein
Effect on cellular function,
such as glycogen
Plasma breakdown
membrane
of target cell
Hormonal stimuli
Most common category of stimulus
Endocrine organs are activated by other hormones
Example:
Hormones of the hypothalamus stimulate the anterior
pituitary to secrete its hormones
Figure 9.2a Endocrine gland stimuli.
2 …stimulate
the anterior
Anterior
pituitary
pituitary
gland to
gland
secrete
hormones
that…
Humoral stimuli
Changing blood levels of certain ions and nutrients
stimulate hormone release
Humoral indicates various body fluids, such as blood
and bile
Examples:
Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin are produced in
response to changing levels of blood calcium levels
Insulin is produced in response to changing levels of
blood glucose levels
Figure 9.2b Endocrine gland stimuli.
Capillary
(low Ca2+ Thyroid gland
in blood) (posterior view)
Parathyroid Parathyroid
glands glands
PTH
2 …secretion of parathyroid
hormone (PTH) by parathyroid
glands
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Stimuli for Control of Hormone Release
Neural stimuli
Nerve fibers stimulate hormone release
Most are under the control of the sympathetic nervous
system
Examples:
Sympathetic stimulation of the adrenal medulla to
release epinephrine and norepinephrine
Figure 9.2c Endocrine gland stimuli.
Preganglionic
sympathetic fibers
Medulla of
adrenal
gland
Capillary
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Pineal gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Gonads (testes and ovaries)
Figure 9.3 Location of the major endocrine organs of the body.
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Pituitary gland
Pea-sized gland that hangs by a stalk from the
hypothalamus in the brain
Protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone
Has two functional lobes
Anterior pituitary—glandular tissue
Posterior pituitary—nervous tissue
Often called the “master endocrine gland”
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus
Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals
Posterior lobe
Capillary bed
Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary
ADH Oxytocin
Posterior pituitary
Does not make the hormones it releases
Stores hormones made by the hypothalamus
Two hormones released
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Hypothalamic
neurosecretory
Optic cells
chiasma Hypothalamus
Axon
Arterial blood supply
terminals
Posterior lobe
Capillary bed
Venous drainage
Anterior lobe
of the pituitary
ADH Oxytocin
Testes or ovaries
Prolactin (PRL)
Stimulates and maintains milk production following
childbirth
Function in males is unknown
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Gonadotropic hormones
Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
Stimulates sperm development in testes
Luteinizing hormone (LH)
Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
Stimulates testosterone production in males
Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus
Common carotid
artery
Isthmus of
thyroid gland
Aorta
Thyroid hormone
Major metabolic hormone
Controls rate of oxidation of glucose to supply body
heat and chemical energy
Needed for tissue growth and development
Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
Thyroxine (T4)—secreted by thyroid follicles
Triiodothyronine (T3)—conversion of T4 at target tissues
Figure 9.6b The thyroid gland.
Colloid-filled
follicles Follicle cells
Parafollicular cells
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
follicles (380x)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thyroid Gland
Calcitonin
Decreases blood calcium levels by causing calcium
deposition on bone
Antagonistic to parathyroid hormone
Produced by parafollicular cells found between the
follicles
Figure 9.6b The thyroid gland.
Colloid-filled
follicles Follicle cells
Parafollicular cells
(b) Photomicrograph of thyroid gland
follicles (380x)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Parathyroid Glands
Calcitonin
Calcitonin
stimulates
calcium salt
deposit in bone.
Thyroid gland
releases calcitonin.
Stimulus
Rising blood IM
BA
Ca2+ levels LA
NC
E
Calcium homeostasis of blood:
BALANCE BALANCE
9–11 mg/100 ml
IM Stimulus
BA Falling blood
LA
NC
E Ca2+ levels
Thyroid
gland
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
matrix and release glands Parathyroid
Ca2+ into blood. glands release
parathyroid
hormone (PTH).
PTH
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Thymus
Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area
Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal
Cortex
Adrenal gland
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex
Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area
Medulla
Adrenal
medulla
Decreased Na+ or
increased K+ in Stress
blood
Hypothalamus
Decreased Corticotropin-
blood volume releasing
and/or blood hormone
pressure Anterior pituitary
Increased
blood pressure
ACTH or blood volume
Kidney
Renin
Heart
Indirect
stimulating
effect via
angiotensin Atrial natriuretic
peptide (ANP)
Angiotensin II
Direct
stimulating Inhibitory
effect effect
Mineralocorticoid-
producing part of
adrenal cortex
Enhanced secretion
of aldosterone targets
kidney tubules
Adrenal medulla
Produces two similar hormones (catecholamines)
1. Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2. Norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-
term stress (“fight or flight”) by:
Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose
levels
Dilating small passageways of lungs
Figure 9.8 Microscopic structure of the adrenal gland.
Adrenal
Capsule
gland
Mineralocorticoid-
Kidney secreting area
Glucocorticoid-
secreting area
Adrenal
Cortex
Adrenal gland
• Medulla cortex
• Cortex
Sex hormone-
Kidney secreting area
Medulla
Adrenal
medulla
ACTH Adrenal
Preganglionic cortex
Adrenal sympathetic
medulla fibers
Mineralocorticoids Glucocorticoids
Pancreas
Located in the abdomen, close to stomach
Mixed gland, with both endocrine and exocrine
functions
The pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
produce hormones
Insulin—produced by beta cells
Glucagon—produced by alpha cells
These hormones are antagonists that maintain blood
sugar homeostasis
Figure 9.11a Pancreatic tissue.
Stomach
Pancreas
(a)
Exocrine
cells of
pancreas
Pancreatic
(b) islets
Capillaries
Insulin
Released when blood glucose levels are high
Increases the rate of glucose uptake and metabolism
by body cells
Effects are hypoglycemic
Glucagon
Released when blood glucose levels are low
Stimulates the liver to release glucose to blood, thus
increasing blood glucose levels
Figure 9.12 Regulation of the blood glucose level by a negative feedback mechanism involving pancreatic hormones.
Uptake of glucose
from blood is
enhanced in most
body cells.
Glucagon-releasing
Glucose Glycogen cells of pancreas
Liver breaks
activated; release
down glycogen
Liver glucagon into blood.
stores and
releases glucose Glucagon
to the blood.
© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
Gonads
Gonads
Produce sex cells
Produce sex hormones
Gonads
Ovaries
Female gonads located in the pelvic cavity
Produce eggs
Produce two groups of steroid hormones
1. Estrogens
2. Progesterone
Testes
Male gonads suspended outside the pelvic cavity
Produce sperm
Produce androgens, such as testosterone
Figure 9.3 Location of the major endocrine organs of the body.
Pineal gland
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid glands
Thymus
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Ovary (female)
Testis (male)
Estrogens
Stimulate the development of secondary female
characteristics
Mature the female reproductive organs
With progesterone, estrogens also:
Promote breast development
Regulate menstrual cycle
Gonads
Progesterone
Acts with estrogen to bring about the menstrual cycle
Helps in the implantation of an embryo in the uterus
Helps prepare breasts for lactation
Gonads
Testes
Produce several androgens
Testosterone is the most important androgen
Responsible for adult male secondary sex
characteristics
Promotes growth and maturation of male reproductive
system
Required for sperm cell production
Table 9.1 Major Endocrine Glands and Some of Their Hormones (1 of 4).