2.

10 Under what conditions are mixed cells a problem in raster data

models? In what ways may the problem of mixed cells be addressed?

Lecture 3 1
2.18    

   

   

   

Lecture 3 2
2.21Why do we need to compress data?
Which is most commonly compressed,
raster data or vector data? Why?

Lecture 3 3
2.24
b b a a a c a a a

c c b b d d d a a

b b b b b b b b b

e c f b a d f b a

a s a f f f b b a

Lecture 3 4
Geodesy & Map Projections

Chapter 3
Lecture 3 5
 Introduction
• To effectively use GIS, it is important to
understand:
• How coordinate systems are established for the
surface of the Earth.
• How coordinates are measures on the Earth’s
curved surface.
• How these coordinates are converted for use on
flat maps
• To understand these things we need some
knowledge of geodesy and map projections.
Lecture 3 6
 Geodesy
• Geodesy is the science of measuring the
size and shape of the earth.
• All measurements are relative to some
reference, and the best estimates of this
reference have changed over time.
• Maps use a two dimensional reference
system, but this doesn’t work well for long
distances or over the whole Earth.
Lecture 3 7
 Defining a Spatial Referencing
System
• Every spatial feature needs to be referenced to
a location for GIS use
• Spatial reference systems provide a framework
to define positions on the Earth‘s surface.
• Steps
– Define the size and shape of the Earth.
– Establish a datum – reference surface from which
other points can be measured.
– Develop a spatial reference system:
• Origin
• Orientation of the axes
• Units of measure
Lecture 3 8
 Difficulty in Defining
Coordinates for the Earth
• Three complicating factors:
• A flat map must distort geometry in some way.
• The irregular shape of the Earth.
• The imperfections of our measurements.
• Because of these three factors we may
have several sets of coordinates for the
same location.

Lecture 3 9
Lecture 3 10
Early Measurements
The Earth as a Sphere

Lecture 3 11
 Defining the Ellipsoid
• Newton reasoned
that the Earth was
not a sphere.
• Efforts were then
focused on
measuring the size
of the ellipsoid.

Lecture 3 12
 Local or Regional Ellipsoid

Origin, r1, and r2 of ellipsoid specified

such that separation between
ellipsoid and Geoid is small

These ellipsoids have names, e.g.,

Clarke 1880, or Bessel

Lecture 3 13
Lecture 3 14
 The Earth is NOT an Ellipsoid
(only very close in shape)

The Earth has irregularities in it - deviations

from a perfectly ellipsoidal shape

These deviations are due to differences in

the gravitational pull of the Earth
 
Deviations are NOT the surface topography

Lecture 3 15
The Earth’s True Shape is Best
Described as a GEOID

Lecture 3 16
The Geoid is a measured surface (not
mathematically defined)

Found via surface instruments (gravimeters)

towed behind boats, planes, or carried in
vehicles.

Or, from measurements of satellite paths

(ephemerides)

May be thought of as an approximation

of mean sea level
Lecture 3 17
Measuring Elevations

(Dynamic Height)

Lecture 3 18
 Datum
• A set of points on Earth for which the
horizontal and vertical positions have been
accurately measured.
• These form a mathematical surface from
which all other points can be measured.
• Many countries have government bodies
charged with making these measurements;
e.g. National Geodetic Survey

Lecture 3 19
http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/datasheets/

Lecture 3 20
Lecture 3 21
Data Sheet

Lecture 3 22
 Defining a Datum

Horizontal Datum
Specify the ellipsoid
Specify the coordinate locations of features
on this ellipsoidal surface
Vertical Datum
Specify the ellipsoid
Specify the Geoid – which set of
measurements will you use, or which model
Lecture 3 23
Two Main Eras of Datums
There are two horizontal control
networks commonly referred to

North American Datum of 1927

(also NAD27)

North American Datum of 1983

(also NAD83), to replace NAD27

Lecture 3 24
NAD27 vs NAD83

Kansas

Lecture 3 25
 Datum “Adjustment”
A datum adjustment is a calculation of the coordinates
of each benchmark – this is how we specify the
“reference surface”

Not straightforward, because of contradictions

Errors in distance, angle measurements

Improvements in our measurements of Geoid, best

spheroid

Improvements in computing capabilities

Lecture 3 26
 Datum Versions
• NAD83 (19860
• NAD83(HARN) –
High Accuracy
Reference
Networks
• NAD83(1996)
• NAD83(2007)

Lecture 3 27
 Vertical Datums
 Likehorizontal, but referenced to standard elevation
and established using vertical leveling
 Two major vertical datums,
 North American Vertical Datum of 1927 (NAVD29),
and an update,
 North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)

Lecture 3 28
 Global Ellipsoid

Selected so that these have the best fit

“globally”, to sets of measurements taken
across the globe.

Generally have less appealing names,

e.g. WGS84, or ITRF 2000

Lecture 3 29
 Datum Transformations
• Converting coordinates from one datum to
another requires a transformation.
• Simple formulas do not exist for NAD27 to
NAD83 conversions.

Lecture 3 30
The Evolution of N. Am. Datums

Lecture 3 31
 Review
• Geographic coordinates in decimal degrees:
– Latitude is positive above the equator and
negative below.
– Longitude is positive east of the Greenwich
meridian and negative west of the Greenwich
meridian.
• Two eras of North American datums:
– NAD 27 and NAD 83.
– Must transform from one to the other.

Lecture 3 32
• There are many different versions of the
NAD83 datum.
– These should not be combined unless you are
certain that the errors will be small.
• There are also vertical datums.

• Elevations may be ellipsoidal or

orthometric heights.

Lecture 3 33
 GIS Use and Datums
• GIS projects should not mix datums unless
you are sure that the datum shifts are
small relative to the analysis.
• Datum transformations are estimated
relationships that are developed with a
specific data sets.
• All datum transformations will introduce
error into the data set.
Lecture 3 34
Map Projections

Lecture 3 35
Map projections are used to transfer or
“project” geographical coordinates onto a
flat surface. .
There are many projections/coordinate systems:
Maine example:
• NAD 27 Universal Transverse Mercator – Zone 19N
• NAD 27 Maine State Plane (based on the TM projection)
– East Zone
– West Zone

• NAD 83 Universal Transverse Mercator– Zone 19N

• NAD 83 Maine State Plane (based on the TM projection)
– East Zone
– Central Zone
– West Zone
Lecture 3 36
Lecture 3 37
Lecture 3 38
Projections may be categorized by:

1.The location of projection source

2.The projection surface

3.Surface orientation

4.Distortion properties

Lecture 3 39
Categorized by the Location of Projection
Source

Gnomonic -
center of globe
 
Stereographic -
at the antipode
 
Orthographic -
at infinity

Lecture 3 40
Source:http://www.fes.uwaterloo.ca/crs/geog165/
mapproj.htm
The projection
surface:

Cone – Conic

Cylinder -
Cylindrical
 
Plane -
Azimuthul

Lecture 3 41
The projection
surface:

Cone – Conic

Cylinder -
Cylindrical
 
Plane -
Azimuthul

Lecture 3 42
Projection Surfaces – “developable”

Lecture 3 43
 The Tangent Case vs. The Secant
Case
In the tangent case the cone, cylinder or
plane just touches the Earth along a
single line or at a point.
• In the secant case, the cone, or
cylinder intersects or cuts through the
Earth as two circles.
• Whether tangent or secant, the location
of this contact is important because it
defines the line or point of least
distortion on the map projection.
• This line of true scale is called the
standard parallel or standard
Lecture 3
line. 44
 Standard Parallel
• The line of latitude in a conic or cylindrical
projection where the cone or cylinder
touches the globe.
• A tangent conic or cylindrical projection
has one standard parallel.
• A secant conic or cylindrical projection has
two standard parallels.

Lecture 3 45
The Orientation of the Surface

Lecture 3 46
Projections Categorized by
Orientation:

Equatorial - intersecting equator

 

Transverse - at right angle to

equator
  Lecture 3 47
 Specifying Projections
1. The type of developable surface (e.g., cone)

2. The size/shape of the Earth (ellipsoid,

datum), and size of the surface

3. Where the surface intersects the ellipsoid

4. The location of the map projection origin on

the surface, and the coordinate system units

Lecture 3 48
 Defining a Projection – LCC
(Lambert Conformal Conic)

• The LCC requires

we specify an upper
and lower parallel –
origin
20o & 60o
• An ellipsoid – GRS
1980
• A central meridian –
96o
central
• A projection origin – meridian
Lat. 40o Lecture 3 49
 Conformal Projections

• Locally preserves angles/shape.

• Any two lines on the map follow the same
angles as the corresponding original lines
on the Earth.
• Projected graticule lines always cross at
right angles.
• Area, distance and azimuths change.

Lecture 3 50
 Equidistant Projections
• A map is equidistant when the distances
between points differs from the distances
on Earth by the same scale factor.

Lecture 3 51
 Equivalent/Equal Area
Projection
• Equivalent/equal area projections maintain
map areas proportional to the same areas
of the Earth.
• Shape and scale distortions increase near
points 90o from the central line.

Lecture 3 52
 “Standard” Projections
• Governments (and other organizations)
define “standard” projections to use

• Projections preserve specific geometric

properties, over a limited area

•Imposes uniformity, facilitates data

exchange, provides quality control,
establishes limits on geometric distortion.
Lecture 3 53
National Projections

Lecture 3 54
Lecture 3 55
 Map Projections vs. Datum
Transformations
• A map projections is a systematic
rendering from 3-D to 2-D
• Datum transformations are from one
datum to another, 3-D to 3-D or 2-D to 2-D
• Changing from one projection to another
may require both.

Lecture 3 56
From one Projection to Another

Lecture 3 57
Lecture 3 58
 Common GIS Projections
• Mercator- A conformal, cylindrical projection tangent to the
equator.  Originally created to display accurate compass
bearings for sea travel. An additional feature of this projection
is that all local shapes are accurate and clearly defined.

• Transverse Mercator - Similar to the Mercator except that the

cylinder is tangent along a meridian instead of the equator. The
result is a conformal projection that minimizes distortion along
a north-south line, but does not maintain true directions.

• Lambert Equal Area - An equidistant, conic projection similar to

the Lambert Conformal Conic that preserves areas.

• Lecture 3 59
• Lambert Conformal Conic – A conic, confromal projection
typically intersecting parallels of latitude, standard parallels, in
the northern hemisphere.  This projection is one of the best for
middle latitudes because distortion is lowest in the band
between the standard parallels. It is similar to the Albers Conic
Equal Area projection except that the Lambert Conformal
Conic projection portrays shape more accurately than area.

• Albers Equal Area Conic - This conic projection uses two

standard parallels to reduce some of the distortion of a
projection with one standard parallel. Shape and linear scale
distortion are minimized between standard parallels.

Lecture 3 60
 Map Projections Summary
• Projections specify a two-dimensional coordinate
system from a 3-D globe
• All projections cause some distortion
• Errors are controlled by choosing the proper
projection type, limiting the area applied
• There are standard projections
• Projections differ by datum – know your
parameters

Lecture 3 61
 Coordinate Systems
• Once map data are projected onto a planar surface,
features must be referenced by a planar coordinate
system.
• Coordinates in the GIS are measured from the origin
point. However, false eastings and false northings
are frequently used, which effectively offset the
origin to a different place on the coordinate plane.
• The three most common systems you will encounter
in the USA are:
– State Plane Coordinate
systems
– Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
– Public Land Survey System (PLSS) – non-coordinate systems
Lecture 3 62
 State Plane Coordinate Systems
• Uses Lambert conformal conic (LCC) and
Transverse Mercator (TM, cylindrical)

• LCC when long dimension East-West

• TM when long dimension N-S

• May be mixed, as many zones used as needed

Lecture 3 63
State Plane Coordinate System
• Each state partitioned into
California zones
State Plane
Zones • Each zone has a different
projection specified

• Distortion in surface
measurement less than 1
part in 10,000 within a
zone

Lecture 3 64
State Plane Coordinate System Zones

Lecture 3 65
Maine State Plane

Lecture 3 66
State Plane Coordinate System
e.g., Maine East State Plane Zone

Projection: Transverse_Mercator
False_Easting: 700000.000000
False_Northing: 0.000000
Central_Meridian: -67.875000
Scale_Factor: 0.999980
Latitude_Of_Origin: 43.833333
Linear Unit: Meter (1.000000)

Geographic Coordinate System: GCS_North_American_1983

Angular Unit: Degree (0.017453292519943295)
Prime Meridian: Greenwich (0.000000000000000000)
Datum: D_North_American_1983
Spheroid: GRS_1980
Semimajor Axis: 6378137.000000000000000000
Semiminor Axis: 6356752.314140356100000000
Lecture 3 67
Inverse Flattening: 298.257222101000020000
 UTM – Universal Transverse
Mercator
• UTM define horizontal positions world-
wide by dividing the surface of the Earth
into 6o zones.
• Zone numbers designate the 6o
longitudinal strips extending from 80o
south to 84o north.
• Each zone has a central meridian in the
center of the zone.
Lecture 3 68
Universal Transverse Mercator –
UTM System

Lecture 3 69
 UTM Zone
Details
Each Zone is 6 degrees wide

Zone location defined by a

central meridian

Origin at the Equator, 500,000m

west of the zone central Meridian

Coordinates are always positive

(offset for south Zones)

Coordinates discontinuous across

zone boundaries Lecture 3 70
 Universal Transverse Mercator
Projection – UTM Zones for the U.S.

Lecture 3 71
 UTM Zone 19N
• Projection: Transverse_Mercator
• False_Easting: 500000.000000
• False_Northing: 0.000000
• Central_Meridian: -69.000000
• Scale_Factor: 0.999600
• Latitude_Of_Origin: 0.000000
• Linear Unit: Meter (1.000000)

• Geographic Coordinate System: GCS_North_American_1983

• Angular Unit: Degree (0.017453292519943295)
• Prime Meridian: Greenwich (0.000000000000000000)
• Datum: D_North_American_1983
• Spheroid: GRS_1980
• Semimajor Axis: 6378137.000000000000000000
• Semiminor Axis: 6356752.314140356100000000
• Inverse Flattening: 298.257222101000020000

Lecture 3 72
 False Easting/Northing
• False easting – the value added to the x
coordinates of a map projection so that
none of the values being mapped are
negative.
• False northing are values added to the y
coordinates.

Lecture 3 73
 Central Meridian
• Every projection has a central meridian.
• The line of longitude that defines the center
and often the x origin of the projected
coordinate system.
• In most projections, it runs down the middle of
the map and the map is symmetrical on either
side of it.
• It may or may not be a line of true scale. (True
scale means no distance distortion.)
Lecture 3 74
 Central Meridian

http://www.geography.hunter.cuny.edu/~jochen/GTECH361/lectures/
lecture04/concepts/Map%20coordinate%20systems/Projection
%20parameters.htm

Lecture 3 75
Coordinate Systems Notation

Latitude/Longitude
Degrees Minutes Seconds 45° 3' 38" N
Degrees Minutes (decimal) 45° 3.6363' N
Degrees (decimal) + 45.0606°

State Plane (feet) + 2,951,384.24

UTM (meters) + 4,996,473.72

Lecture 3 76
Public Land Survey System

A township is 36 sq. mi.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Land_Survey_System

Lecture 3 77
 Coordinate Systems in ArcGIS
• Define
• Project
– Select a standard projection.
– Create a custom projection.
– Import a projection.

Lecture 3 78
 Principal Scale
• Scale the earth down to a globe whose
size is compatible with the size of the map
plane. This is called the generating globe.
• The radius between the generating globe
and the real earth is called the principal
scale.
• The representative fraction refers to this
scale.

Lecture 3 79
 Concepts of Scale

1 1
1250 100,000
• Representative fraction – when the scale value
is given as a fraction with a numerator as 1.
• When the representative fraction is relatively
large we refer to the map as a large scale map.
– More detail
– Smaller area

Lecture 3 80
 Large Scale Map

1:24,000 scale
(one inch = about 0.4
miles)

Lecture 3 81
 Small Scale Map

1:500,000 scale
(one inch = about 8 miles)

Lecture 3 82
 Scale Factor
• 0 > scale factor < =1
• The ratio of the actual scale at a particular
place on the map to the stated scale on
the map.
• Usually the tangent line or secant lines.

Lecture 3 83
 Assignment

• ReadChapter 3.
• Problems: 5, 6, 7, 9, 3,10, 22, 28, 29

Lecture 3 84