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1
Performance
Metrics and
Wireless MAC
Protocols
Performance
Metrics
 Throughput

 Delay

 Fairness

 Energy
Efficiency
 Throughput and Delay Issues in WLAN

MAC
Backoff and (optional) RTS/CTS handshake before transmission
of data packet and ACK after transmission are unproductive
and do not contribute to throughput
 Backoff interval should be chosen appropriately for efficiency

 Higher number of control packets requires higher way

handshakes (two/three way handshake)

 Higher-way handshakes increases end-to-end delay

Unproductive

Random
RTS/CTS Data Transmission ACK
backoff
 MACA – BI (By-
Invitation)
 In typical sender-initiated protocols, the sending node needs to
switch to receive mode (to get CTS) immediately after
transmitting the RTS.

 Each such exchange of control packets adds to turnaround

time, reducing the overall throughput i.e. low throughput
because of excessive RTS/CTS

 MACA-BI is a receiver-initiated protocol and it reduces the

number of control packet exchanges

 Instead of a sender waiting to gain access to the channel, MACA-

BI requires a receiver to request the sender to send the data, by
using a Ready-To-Receive (RTR) packet instead of the RTS and
the CTS packets.
 MACA –
BI
 Hidden Terminal Problem in MACA-BI still effects the control
packet transmissions

RTR RTR RTR RTR

A B Z C D
1 1 2 2

RTR RTR RTR RTR

A B Z C D
1 1 2 2

 Node Z (scenario below), is not aware of the transmissions of

A and D.
 Media Access with Reduced Handshake
(MARCH)
 Reduced RTS-CTS hand shake

 Improves throughput by reducing control overhead

 Improves End-to-End Delay

 Knowledge of data packet arrivals at neighboring

nodes by overhearing CTS packets

 RTS-CTS handshake is reduced to CTS-only after the

first hop (receiver initiative)
Media Access with Reduced Handshake
(MARCH)
 Comparison between CSMA/CA and
MARCH

 Time taken for a packet transmitted by node A to reach

node D in MARCH is less compared to the time taken in
CSMA/CA
 Advantages of
MARCH
 The Throughput of MARCH is significantly high
when compared to MACA or MACA-based schemes
because the control overhead is much less

 When the network is heavily loaded, the average

end- to-end delay in packet delivery of MARCH is
very low compared to MACA based schemes

 Both these advantages are mainly due to the fact

that MARCH has less number of control packets
Fairnes
s
 Performance
Metrics
 Fairness

 Generally, fairness measures how fair the channel

allocation is among the flows in the different
mobile nodes

 The node mobility and the unreliability of radio

channels are the two main factors that impact
fairness.
 Fairness Issues in
MAC
 Many definitions of fairness are possible
 Simplest definition: All nodes should receive
equal bandwidth

A B

C D

Two flows from A to C and B

to D
 Fairness Issues in
MAC
 Assume that initially, A and B both choose a
backoff interval in range [0,31] but their RTSs
collide
 Nodes A and B then choose from range [0,62]
 Node A chooses 4 slots and B choose 60 slots
 After A transmits a packet, it next chooses from range
[0,31]
 It is possible that A may transmit several packets before
B transmits its first packet

A B

C D
 Fairness Issues in
MAC
 Unfairness occurs when one node has backed off
much more than some other node

B1 = B1 = B1 =
25 wait 20 wait 17 wait

data data data

B2 = B2 = B2 =
5 3 2

B1 and B2 are backoff

cw = intervals
31 at nodes 1 and 2
 MILD Algorithm in
MACAW
 MACAW uses MILD (Multiplicative Increase Linear
Decrease)
algorithm

 When a node successfully completes a transfer, reduces cw

by 1
 In 802.11 cw is restored to cw min

 In 802.11, cw reduces much faster than it increases

 MACAW: cw reduces slower than it increases
 Binary Exponential Backoff (BEB)

 BEB can be formally defined

as
 MILD Proposal for
Fairness
 MILD is defined by the
expression

 Upon collision or failed transmission, the CW is multiplied

by a factor δl. Upon success, the value of CW is
decremented by a factor δD.
 MACAW Proposal for
Fairness
 Advantages of MILD over BEB

 The linear decrease scheme reduces the probability of the

channel being accessed and monopolized by only successful
users, which may cause severe unfairness to access the
shared medium.

 Note: In BEB, the fact that the CW is reset after a successful

transmission increases the probability that successful users
seize the channel against those that always sense the
channel busy and keep on incrementing their CW.
 Fairness using
MILD

B1 = B1 = B1 =
25 wait 20 wait 2 data

data data wait

B2 = 5 B2 = B2 =
18 15

cw = B1 and B2 are backoff

31 intervals
at nodes 1 and 2
 Performance
Metrics
 Energy efficiency

 Generally, energy efficiency is measured as the fraction of the

useful energy consumption (for successful frame
transmission) to the total energy spent
 Energy
Conservation
 Since many mobile hosts are operated by batteries,
MAC protocols which conserve energy are of interest

 Two approaches to reduce energy consumption

 Power save: Turn off wireless interface when desirable

 Power control: Reduce transmit power

Power Save MAC
Protocols
 Power Save Mechanism (PSM)

 The IEEE 802.11 DCF has modification as a

power- saving mechanism, in which time is
divided into beacon intervals that are used to
synchronize the nodes.

 At the beginning of each beacon interval, every

node must stay awake for a fixed time called the
ATIM window.

 ATIM stands for “announcement traffic indication

message” or “Ad-hoc traffic indication
message”
 Power Save Mechanism (PSM)

 ATIM window is used to announce the status of packets

ready for transmission to any receiver nodes.

 Such announcements are made through ATIM frames, and

they are acknowledged with ATIM-ACK packets during the
same beacon interval.
 Power Save Mechanism (PSM)

 Time is divided into beacon

intervals

ATIM
window

Beacon interval

 Each beacon interval begins with an ATIM

window
 Power Save Mechanism (PSM)

 If host A has a packet to transmit to B, A must send

an
ATIM Req to B during an ATIM Window

 On receipt of ATIM Req from A, B will reply by

sending an ATIM Ack, and stay up during the rest of
the beacon interval

 If a host does not receive an ATIM Request during an

ATIM window, and has no pending packets to
transmit, it may sleep during rest of the beacon
interval
Power Save Mechanism (PSM)

Node
A

ATIM ATIM Dat Ac

Req Ack a k

Node
B

Node Sleep
C
 Power Save Mechanism (PSM)

Size of ATIM window

 Size of ATIM window within beacon interval
affects performance

 If ATIM window is too large, reduction in

energy consumption reduced
 Energy consumed during ATIM window

 If ATIM window is too small, not enough time

to send ATIM request
Power Control
MAC
Protocols
 Advantages of Power Control MAC Protocols

 Power control has two potential benefits

 Reduced interference & increased spatial

reuse

 Energy saving
 Power Control Principle

 When C transmits to D at a high power level, B

cannot receive A’s transmission due to interference
from C

A B C D
 Power Control Principle

 If C reduces transmit power, it can still communicate

with D
 Reduces energy consumption at node C
 Allows B to receive A’s transmission (spatial reuse)

A B C D
 Power Control Principle

 Received power level is proportional to 1/d,  >= 2

 If power control is utilized, energy required to transmit

to a host at distance d is proportional to d

 Shorter hops typically preferred for controlled energy

consumption
 Transmit to C from A via B, instead of directly from A to C

C
A B
 Power Control with 802.11

 Transmit RTS/CTS/DATA/ACK at least power level

needed to communicate with the receiver

A B C
D

 A/B do not receive RTS/CTS from C/D. Also do not

sense
D’s data transmission

 B’s transmission to A at high power interferes

with reception of ACK at C
 A Plausible Solution
 RTS/CTS at highest power, and DATA/ACK at smallest
necessary power level
Data sensed

A B C D

Data
RT
Interference S Ac
range k
 If RTS/CTS transmission not at highest power then A cannot
sense C’s data transmission, and may transmit DATA to
some other host

 This DATA will interfere at C

 Disadvantages

 Transmitting RTS at the highest power level also

reduces spatial reuse

 Nodes receiving RTS/CTS have to defer transmissions

MAC Protocols using Directional Antenna
MAC Protocols using Directional Antenna

Red nodes cannot

B Communicate
X
presently
A Y

Not
possible
using Omni

D
C Y
 Problem with Omni-Directional Antenna

 MAC protocols for ad hoc networks typically

assume the use of omnidirectional antennas,
which transmit radio signals to and receive them
from all directions.

 These MAC protocols require all other nodes in

the vicinity to remain silent.
 Potential Benefits of Directional Antenna

 With directional antennas, it is possible to achieve higher

gain and restrict the transmission to a particular direction.

 Similarly, packet reception at a node with a directional

antenna is not affected by interference from other
directions.

 With directional antennas, it is possible that two pairs of

nodes located in each other’s vicinity communicate
simultaneously, depending on the direction of
transmission.

 Use of Directional Antenna would lead to better spatial

reuse in the other, unaffected directions.
 D-MAC

 A Directional MAC (D-MAC) scheme using directional antennas

uses the familiar RTS–CTS–DATA–ACK sequence where only
the CTS packet is sent omnidirectional.

 Every node is assumed to be equipped with several directional

antennas, but only one of them is allowed to transmit at any
given time, depending on the location of the intended
receiver.

 In this scheme, every node is assumed to be aware of its

own location as well as the locations of its immediate
neighbors.

 This scheme gives better throughput than IEEE 802.11 by

IEEE 802.11 DCF Scheme

F A B C D E

RT RT
S
S CTS CT
S

DAT DAT
A A
AC AC
K K

Reserved
area
 D-MAC Scheme
DRTS/
OCTS
A B C D E

DRTS(B
) OCTS(B,C) OCTS(B,C)
DRTS(D)
OCTS(D,E)
DATA
DAT
DRTS(B) - Directional RTS A
including AC AC
K K
location information of node B
OCTS(B,C) – Omni-directional
CTS including location
information
of nodes B and C
THANK YOU