MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Preliminary selection
 Experience, manufacturer‘s data, special literature, availability, safety aspects

Laboratory testing
 Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions

Interpretation of laboratory results and other data

 Stress analysis, excess temperature, excess pressure
 Avoidance of electrolysis, design against corrosion
 Fabrication method

Economic comparison of apparently suitable materials

 Material and maintenance cost, probable life, cost of product degradation

Final selection
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Preliminary selection
 Experience, manufacturer‘s data, special literature, availability, safety
aspects
 MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR
PROCESS EQUIPMENT
Material Max.Tempe Typical Applications
rature [°C]
Cooling-tower water, boiler feed water, steam, air, glycols,
Carbon Steel 400
molten salts, acetone
Aqueous salt solutions, aqueous nitric acid, aqueous basic
Stainless steels 500
solutions, alcohols, ethers, hydrogen

Aluminum 150 Aqueous calcium hydroxide, hydrogen, oxygen

Aqueous sulfate solutions, hydrogen, nitrogen, alcohols,

Copper and copper alloys 150
other organic chemicals, water
Aqueous nitric and organic acids, chlorine, bromine,
Nickel-based alloys 400
ammonia, organic solvents

Titanium-based alloys 400 Aqueous solutions, carbon dioxide, organic solvents

Conventional plastics 50-120 Aqueous solutions

Almost everything except halogens and halogenated

Fluorocarbon plastics 250
chemicals
Aqueous sulfuric acid solutions, almost everything except
Glass lining 250
fluorine and hydrogen fluorine

Ceramics 2000 Almost all aqueous solutions, most solvents, water

 MANUFACTURERS DATA
CARBON STEEL AND STAINLESS STEEL

BS970         A free cutting mild steel giving a good surface finish. Excellent for
230M07     machining at high speeds.
(EN1A)   

BS970 A '40' carbon medium tensile steel. A good all round steel for
080M40 applications requiring added strength.
(EN8)

BS970 17% chromium, 2½% nickel stainless. Supplied heat treated with a
Grade 431 high tensile strength.
(Stainless)
BS970 18% chromium, 11% nickel, 2½% molybdenum stainless. It offers
Grade 316 high resistance to corrosion.
(Stainless)

Source: West Yorkshire Steel Co. Ltd.

 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Preliminary selection
 Experience, manufacturer‘s data, special literature, availability, safety
aspects

Laboratory testing
 Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions

Interpretation of laboratory results and other data

 Stress analysis, excess temperature, excess pressure
 STRESS ANALYSIS

A vessel or pipe must be able to withstand the pressure of the fluid within it

cylindrical vessel:
 required thickness for a given internal pressure:

pR
t
0.9 S  0.6 p
 maximum pressure for a given wall thickness:

0.9St
p
p = internal pressure (bar) R  0.6t
t = wall thickness (m)
S = allowable tensile stress (bar)
R = internal radius (m)
 STRESS ANALYSIS (II)

spherical vessel:

1.8St pR
p t
R  0.2t 1.8S  0.2 p

safety allowances already built in

advisable to add 3 mm (to allow for corrosion)
 STRESS ANALYSIS
MATERIAL COMPARISON
Assumptions: p = 20 bar; R = 0.5 m; V = 0.52 m³

Aluminum Carbon Steel Carbon Steel Stainless steel

(up to 200°C) (up to 400 °C) (600°C) (600°C)
S = 200 S = 1000 S = 100 S = 700

Cylindrical
0.059 m 0.011 m 0.128 m 0.016 m
vessel
Spherical
0.028 m 0.0056 m 0.057 m 0.008 m
Vessel

Results:
• required thickness for spherical vessel only 50% of t for cylindrical vessel
• Aluminum requires a high thickness even for low temperatures
• Carbon steel applicable up to 400°C
• For higher temperatures stainless steel recommended
ALLOWABLE TENSILE STRESS
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Preliminary selection
 Experience, manufacturer‘s data, special literature, availability, safety
aspects

Laboratory testing
 Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions

Interpretation of laboratory results and other data

 Stress analysis, excess temperature, excess pressure
 Avoidance of electrolysis, design against corrosion
 Fabrication method
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT CORROSION

Corrosion specifically refers to any process

involving the deterioration or degradation of
metal components.
The best known case is that of the rusting of
steel.
Corrosion processes are usually
electrochemical in nature, having the essential
features of a battery.
 When metal atoms are exposed to an
environment containing water molecules
they can give up electrons, becoming
themselves positively charged ions,
provided an electrical circuit can be
completed.
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT CORROSION

The corrosion process (anodic reaction) of the metal dissolving as

ions generates some electrons that are consumed by a secondary
process (cathodic reaction).

These two processes have to balance their charges.

 The sites hosting these two processes can be located close to
each other on the metal's surface, or far apart depending on the
circumstances.

This simple observation has a major impact in many aspects of

corrosion prevention and control, for designing new corrosion
monitoring techniques to avoiding the most insidious or localized
forms of corrosion.
CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS

Definition of corrosion:
“an undesirable degradation of a
material resulting from a chemical
reaction with the environment”

Corrosion occurs due to the natural

tendency of metals to give up
electrons
 CORROSION OF IRON
AN ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
Electrochemical or redox reactions cause e.g. rusting of cars, process
equipment, etc.:

anode: Fe  Fe2+ + 2 e- EOX = -0.44

cathode: O2 + 2 H2O + 4 e-  4 OH- ERED = +0.40

2 Fe(s) + O2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)  2 Fe(OH)2 (s) Ecell = +0.84

Ecell = ERED - EOX
• When oxygen has access to a moist metal surface, corrosion is

promoted
• it is promoted the most where the oxygen concentration is the
least, because local corrosion rates are modulated in order to
homogenize reduction ion concentrations within the electrolyte.

(Which is dissolved oxygen)

Dissolved Oxygen: volume of oxygen that is contained in water
 CONCEPT OF THE HALF CELL

For ANY REDOX reaction:

• Standard Reduction Potentials allow prediction of

direction of spontaneous reaction

If Eo > 0 reaction proceeds to RIGHT (products)

If Eo < 0 reaction proceeds to LEFT (reactants)

• Eo only applies to [ ] = 1 M for all aqueous species

• at other concentrations, the cell potential differs

Ecell can be predicted by Nernst equation
 CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS

Definition of corrosion: an undesirable degradation of a material

resulting from a chemical reaction with the environment.
Corrosion occurs due to the natural tendency of metals to give up
electrons
Metals with a more negative Standard Electrode Potential are more
likely to corrode relative to other metals
 STANDARD EMF SERIES

metal E° [V]
Au +1.420
More cathodic

Cu +0.340
Pb -0.126
Sn -0.136
Ni -0.250
Co -0.277 E°= E°CAT -E°AN = 1,103 V
Cd -0.403
Fe -0.440
More anodic

Cr -0.744
Zn -0.763
Al -1.662
Mg -2.262
Na -2.714
K -2.924
 GALVANIC CELL (EXAMPLE)
electrodes Cu and Zn connected by an
electrical path.
metals share the same electrolyte
(ionic path)
anode is the electrode with the more
electronegative potential (in this case
Zn)
cathode is the electrode with the more
electropositive or nobler potential (in +0,340 V -0,763 V
this case Cu)
 Metal with smaller E° corrodes

EMF series can be used to predict

which metal in the galvanic couple will
be the anode only when both metals
are in their standard states (25°C and
in 1M solution of their salts)
In practical cases, we must establish a
galvanic series
 CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS

Definition of corrosion: an undesirable degradation of a material

resulting from a chemical reaction with the environment.
Corrosion occurs due to the natural tendency of metals to give up
electrons
Metals with a more negative Standard Electrode Potential are more
likely to corrode relative to other metals
The galvanic Series ranks the reactivity of metals and alloys in
seawater
 GALVANIC SERIES
Ranks the reactivity of metals / alloys in seawater

Platinum
Gold
Graphite
More cathodic

Titanium
Silver
316 Stainless steel (passive)
(Inert)

Nickel (passive)
Copper
Nickel (active)
Tin
Lead
316 Stainless steel (active)
More anodic

Iron / Steel
Aluminum Alloys
(active)

Cadmium
Zinc
Magnesium
 CORROSION FUNDAMENTALS

Definition of corrosion: an undesirable degradation of a material

resulting from a chemical reaction with the environment.
Corrosion occurs due to the natural tendency of metals to give up
electrons
Metals with a more negative Standard Electrode Potential are more
likely to corrode relative to other metals
The Galvanic Series ranks the reactivity of metals and alloys in
seawater
Corrosion reactions can be predicted simply by examining the relative
position of the individual half cells in the EMF Series or the alloys in
the Galvanic series.
Increasing T speeds up oxidation/ reduction reactions
 GALVANIC CORROSION

corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a

corrosive electrolyte.
potential difference between the different materials

Designing against galvanic corrosion:

 Minimize electrical contact between dissimilar metals (insulation)
 Careful selection of weld filler metals
 Chose metals that are as close as possible in the galvanic series
 Consider use of cathodic protection
 CATHODIC PROTECTION
SACRIFICIAL ANODE
 pieces of metal that are more electrically active than steel
 corrode at an even faster rate to protect the steel.

 The steel is protected while the anode is “sacrificed.”

 used only on steel that is well coated

anode will be sacrificed too quickly if it has to protect a large area
of steel.
 CATHODIC PROTECTION

IMPRESSED CURRENT
 metal dissolution is reduced through the application of a cathodic

current.
 often applied to coated structures
 coating provides the primary form of corrosion protection
 current requirements are excessive for uncoated systems
 CREVICE CORROSION

initiated by changes in local chemistry within the

crevice
 Depletion of inhibitor in the crevice
 Depletion of oxygen in the crevice
 Shift to acid conditions in the crevice

mostly oxygen differential cell corrosion.

occurs because moisture has a lower oxygen
content in a crevice
 anode at the metal surface.
 cathode at the metal surface in contact with the
portion of the moisture film exposed to air

Designing against crevice corrosion:

 Minimize gaps between components crevices
 use welds rather than rivets or bolted joints
 Remove accumulated deposits frequently
 design containment vessels to avoid stagnant areas
 EROSION CORROSION

combination of chemical attack and the

physical abrasion
 consequence of the fluid motion
all alloy or metals are susceptible
 because this type of corrosion is very
dependent on the fluid
Often fluids that contain suspended solids

Designing against erosion corrosion:

 Minimize momentum transfer in piping and
valves
 Extra protection for multi-phase flow
(harder metals)
 maintain flow velocities within the limits of the
chosen metals
 minimize the number of changes in direction
 STRESS CORROSION

combination of an applied tensile stress

and a corrosive environment
result of expansions and contractions
 caused by violent temperature changes
or thermal cycles

Designing against stress corrosion:

 limit the magnitude and/or frequency of
the tensile stress
 Careful heat treatment
 Avoid residual stress induced by rivets
and bolts
 Careful fabrication especially during
welding
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Preliminary selection
 Experience, manufacturer‘s data, special literature, availability, safety
aspects

Laboratory testing
 Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions

Interpretation of laboratory results and other data

 Stress analysis, excess temperature, excess pressure
 Avoidance of electrolysis, design against corrosion
 Fabrication method

Economic comparison of apparently suitable materials

 Material and maintenance cost, probable life, depreciation
 ECONOMIC CALCULATION

A cost estimation should include the

following items:

Total equipment and material costs

Installation costs
Maintenance costs
Estimated life
Replacement costs
 ECONOMIC CALCULATION
- ALTERNATIVE INVESTMENT COMPARISON -

Material A Material B Material C

Purchased cost 25000 30000 35000
Installation cost 15000 20000 25000
Total installed cost 40000 50000 60000
Additional cost over A 10000 20000
Estimated life [years] 4 10 10
Estimated maintenance cost /
5000 4500 3000
year
Annual replacement cost 10000 5000 6000
Total annual cost 15000 9500 9000
Annual savings vs. Cost for A 5500 6000
Tax on savings (34%) 1870 2040
Net annual savings 3630 3960
Return on investment over A 36.3 % 19.8 %
 SELECTION OF MATERIALS

Preliminary selection
 Experience, manufacturer‘s data, special literature, availability, safety aspects

Laboratory testing
 Reevaluation of apparently suitable materials under process conditions

Interpretation of laboratory results and other data

 Stress analysis, excess temperature, excess pressure
 Avoidance of electrolysis, design against corrosion
 Fabrication method

Economic comparison of apparently suitable materials

 Material and maintenance cost, probable life, depreciation

Final selection
FINAL SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

If at all possible, carbon steel is used

 cheap, strong and readily available

Plastics are ok
 cannot take heat and significant pressures

Copper based metals

 excellent for heat transfer equipment
 Corrosion resistance is good

Stainless steel
 increased corrosion resistance
 can take higher temperatures
Ceramics
 Best corrosion resistance
 Poor mechanical properties
 LITERATURE

Perry, Robert H.: Perry‘s chemical engineers‘ handbook,

Section 28
Ulrich, Gael D.: A guide to chemical engineering process
design and economics; p 250 et seqq.
Peters, Max S.; Timmershaus Klaus D.: Plant Design
and Economics for Chemical Engineers; Chapter 12
Seider, Warren D.; Seader, J.D.; Lewin, Daniel R.;
Process Design Principles; Appendix XI
QUESTIONS AND DISCUSSION