1 12/04/2022

 The large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic molecules are
called biological macromolecules.
 There are four major classes of biological macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and nucleic acids), and each is an important component of the cell and performs a wide
array ofGEZU.F
2
functions. 12/04/2022
 1. Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates  are carbon compounds that contain large quantities of hydroxyl
groups .
 The presence of the hydroxyl groups allows carbohydrates to interact with the
aqueous environment and to participate in hydrogen bonding

• Produced by photosynthesis in
plants.

• The major source of energy

from our diet.

• Composed of the elements C, H,

and O.

Cn(H2O)n

Photosynthesis

3 GEZU.F 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

RespirationC H O + 6O
6 12 6 2 12/04/2022
glucose
 CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates are generally classified as:
 simple carbohydrates and

 complex carbohydrates.

 Simple carbohydrates /monosaccharides /single sugars/

 A monosaccharide is a carbohydrate that contains a single

polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketone unit.

4 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Monosaccharides (Simple Sugar)
• The simplest aldose is glyceraldehyde.
• The simplest ketose is dihydroxyacetone.

C3H6O3 Constitutional Isomers

Monosaccharaides cannot be broken down into simpler units by

hydrolysis reactions.
Pure monosaccharaides are water-soluble, white, crystalline solids.
The three nutritionally important monosaccharide's are
Glucose
Fructose
GEZU.F
5
Galactose 12/04/2022
 Some important Monosaccharides

Glucose (Dextrose)

(C6H12O6, aldohexose) – Blood sugar

H O
• The most abundant monosaccharide C
• Is found in fruits, vegetables, H C OH
corn syrup, and honey. HO C H
H C OH
• Is found in disaccharides such as sucrose,
lactose, and maltose. H C OH
CH2OH
• Makes up polysaccharides such as starch,
cellulose, and glycogen.

6 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Some important Monosaccharides
Glucose (Dextrose)

- Normal blood glucose levels are 70-110 mg/dL.

- Excess glucose is stored as the polysaccharide glycogen or as
fat.
Glucose
Blood glucose and blood sugar in the body
Most abundant monosaccharide in the body
Is the preferred and main source of energy for the brain and
red blood cells
Part of every disaccharide
- Patients with diabetes produce insufficient insulin to adequately
regulate blood sugar levels, so they must monitor their diet and/or
-
inject insulin daily.
- - Insulin (a protein produced in the pancreas) regulates blood glucose
levels by stimulating the uptake of glucose into tissues or the
formation of glycogen.
7 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Some important Monosaccharides
Fructose CH2OH
(C6H12O6, ketohexose), C O
• Is the sweetest of the carbohydrates. HO C H
• Is found in fruit juices and honey (fruit sugar). H C OH
• In bloodstream, it is converted to its isomer, glucose. H C OH
CH2OH
• Is bonded to glucose in sucrose (a disaccharide known as table
sugar).
Fructose
Sweetest of natural sugars
Found abundantly in fruits
Part of high-fructose corn syrup

8 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Some important Monosaccharides

Galactose:(C6H12O6, aldohexose),
H O
Commonly occurs as part of dissaccharide lactose C
found as the monosaccharide in peas
H C OH
• Has a similar structure to glucose except for the –OH on Carbon 4. HO C H
• Cannot find in the free form in nature. HO C H

• Exist in the cellular membranes of the brain and nervous system.

H C OH
CH2OH
• Combines with glucose in lactose (a disaccharide and a sugar in milk).
Galactosemia

missing the enzyme that convert galactose to glucose.

Accumulation of galactose in the blood and tissues.

Mental retardation and cataract

9 Solution: removing the galactose from food: no

GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Biochemically Important Monosaccharides

10 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Cyclic Structure – Haworth Structure
1

Anomeric carbon

1
1 1

Alpha (α) Beta ()

11 GEZU.F More stable form 12/04/2022
Anomers
 Cyclic Structure – Haworth Structure

CH2OH CH2OH
O O 
OH
1 1
OH OH
OH OH  OH

OH OH
-D-Glucose -D-Glucose

CH2OH
CH2OH CH2OH O
OH

O O OH
OH OH OH

OH
1 1
OH OH
OH OH

OH OH

12
-D-Galactose
GEZU.F -D-Galactose 12/04/2022
13 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Complex carbohydrates

 contain two or more sugar subunits linked together linked by glycoside

bonds.
disaccharide
 A disaccharide is a carbohydrate that contains two monosaccharide
units covalently bonded to each other by glycoside bonds
 on hydrolysis is cleaved to two monosaccharaides, which may be

the same or different.

 Sucrose (common table sugar) is a disaccharide that yields one

molecule of glucose and one of fructose on hydrolysis.

14 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
15 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Disaccharides

The glycosidic bond joining the two rings can be alpha (a) or beta (b).
Maltose:
• Is a disaccharide of two glucose molecules.
• Has a α -1,4-glycosidic bond (between two α-glucoses).
• Is obtained from the breakdown of starches.
• Is used in cereals and candies.
• Is a reducing sugar (carbon 1 can open to give a free aldehyde to oxidize)

CH2OH CH 2OH CH2OH

CH2OH
 -1,4-glycosidic
O O O
O bond OH 
OH
1 + 4
OH 1 4 + H 2O
OH OH OH O OH
OH OH OH
OH OH
OH OH
α-glucose α-glucose
- maltose
16 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Disaccharides
Lactose:
• Is a disaccharide of galactose and glucose.
• Has a β -1,4-glycosidic bond (between β-galactose and α-gulcose).
• Is found in milk and milk products (almost no sweet).
• Is a reducing sugar (carbon 1 can open to give a free aldehyde to oxidize).

17 GEZU.F -lactose 12/04/2022

 Disaccharides
Sucrose:
• Is found in table sugar (obtained from sugar cane and sugar beets).
• Consists of glucose and fructose.
• Has an α,β-1,2-glycosidic bond (between α-glucose and -fructose).
• Is not a reducing sugar (carbon 1 cannot open to give a free aldehyde
to oxidize).

β-1,2-glycosidic
bond

18 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Polysaccharides

• Polymers of many monosaccharides units.

Amylose (20%)
• Starch (starch that stores glucose in plants such
Amylopectin (80%) as rice, potatoes, beans, and wheat - energy storage).

• Glycogen (an energy storage in animals & humans)

• Cellulose (plant and wood structures).

19 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Polysaccharides
Amylose:

• Is a polysaccharide of α-glucose in a
continuous (unbranched) chain (helical or coil
form).

• Has α-1,4-glycosidic bonds between the

α-glucose units (250 to 4000 units).

α-1,4-glycosidic bond

20 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
  Amylose
Straight chain
More resistant to digestion
Resistant starch
 Amylopectin
Branched chains
Easier to digest

21 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Polysaccharides
Amylopectin:
• Is a polysaccharide of glucose units in branched chains.
• Has α-1,4-glycosidic bonds between the α-glucose units.
• Has α-1,6 bonds to branches of glucose units.
(at about every 25 glucose units, there is a branch).
• Both forms of starch are water soluble.

22 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Polysaccharides
Glycogen:

- It is similar to amylopectin (more highly branched-every 10-15 units).

- It is an energy storage molecule found in animals/humans.

- It is stored mainly in the liver and in muscle cells.

- When glucose is needed for energy, glucose units are hydrolyzed

from the ends of the glycogen polymer.

- Because glycogen is highly branched, there are many ends available

for hydrolysis.

23 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
24 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Polysaccharides
Cellulose:

• Is a polysaccharide of glucose units in unbranched chains with b-1,4-

glycosidic bonds (2200 glucose units).
• Has rigid structure (H-bond) and insoluble in water.
• Is the major structural material of wood & plants (cotton: 100%).
• Cannot be digested by humans because of the
b-1,4-glycosidic bonds (needs an enzyme: b-glycosidase).

25 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Cellulose:

- Cellulose makes up the insoluble fiber in our diets.

- It passes through the digestive system without being metabolized.

- Fiber is important in adding bulk to waste to help eliminate it more

easily (even though it gives us no nutrition).

26 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 The Comparison of Starch and Glycogen Molecul

27 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Amino Sugars
They contain an -NH2 group in place of an -OH group.

- The most abundant amino sugar in nature is D-glucosamine.

- Glucosamine helps keep the cartilage in joints healthy. But natural

glucosamine levels drop as people age.

- As a supplement, glucosamine is most often used to try to ease

the joint pain caused by arthritis.

CHO CHO CHO CHO O

2
H NH2 H2N H H NH2 H NHCCH3
HO H HO H HO H HO H
H OH H OH HO4 H H OH
H OH H OH H OH H OH
CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH CH2 OH
D-Glucosamine D-Mannosamine D-Galactosamine N-Acetyl-D-
(C-2 stereoisomer (C-4 stereoisomer glucosamine
of D-glucosamine of D-glucosamine)
28 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Amino Sugars
- The second most abundant amino sugar in nature is Chitin.

- It is a polysaccharide formed from N-acetyl-D-glucosamine units

joined together by 1,4-b-glycosidic bonds.
- Its structure is similar to cellulose (insoluble in water).

29 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

They are a group of unbranched carbohydrates derived from alternating

amino sugar and glucuronate units.

Hyaluronate: extracellular fluids that lubricate joints and in the

vitreous humor of the eye.

30 GEZU.F β-glycosidic bond 12/04/2022

 Useful Carbohydrates

Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs)

Chondroitin: a component of cartilage and tendons.

β-glycosidic bond

Heparin: stored in the mast cells of the liver, helps prevent blood
clotting.

α-glycosidic bond
31 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Blood Type

- There are four blood types—A, B, AB, and O.

- Blood type is based on 3 or 4 monosaccharides attached to a

membrane protein of red blood cells.

- Each blood type has the monosaccharides below:

32 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Blood Type

Type A blood contains a fourth monosaccharide:

Type B contains an additional D-galactose unit.

Type AB has both type A and type B carbohydrates.

33 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates
Blood Type

34 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Blood Type

- The short polysaccharide chains distinguish one type of the red blood
cell from another, and signal the cells about the foreign viruses, bacteria,
and other agents.

- The blood of one individual may contain antibodies to another type.

- Those with type O blood are called universal donors, because

people with any other blood type have no antibodies to type O.

- Those with type AB blood are universal recipients because their

blood contains no antibodies to A, B, or O.

35 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Useful Carbohydrates

Blood Type

36 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 2.lipids
 Lipids (Greek: lipos, means fat or lard)
 A lipid is an organic compound found in living organisms that is insoluble
(or only sparingly soluble) in water but soluble in nonpolar organic
solvents.
Functions of lipids
 Lipids are concentrated source of energy. One gram fat gives 9 K calories.
 It serves as a cushion for the vital organs and protects them from external
shocks or injuries.
 are the structural materials of cells and membranes
 serves as insulator for our body
 are the carrier / reservoir of fat soluble vitamins
 In food preparations lipids serves as a binding agent.

37 It also enhances the palatability of foods.

 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Classification of Lipids

38 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Triglycerides

 simple lipids
 Triglycerides are esters of fatty acids and glycerols
 Animal fats and vegetable oils, the most abundant naturally
occurring lipids, are triesters of glycerol and long-chain
carboxylic acids.
 Fats and oils are also referred to as triglycerides or
triacylglycerols.

39 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Types of Triglycerides

 Simple triglycerides: They are triesters made from glycerol

and three molecules of one kind of fatty acids. They are rare.
 Mixed triglycerides: They are triesters with different fatty
acid components
 Animal fats and vegetable oils are many different mixed
triglycerides;
 e.g., Butterfat contains at least 14 different carboxylic acids.

40 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Fatty Acids

 Lipid Building Blocks

 A fatty acid is a naturally occurring monocarboxylic acid.
 nearly always contain an even number of carbon atoms and
have a carbon chain that is unbranched.
 In terms of carbon chain length, fatty acids are characterized as
 long-chain fatty acids (C12 to C26),
 mediumchain fatty acids (C8 and C10), or
 short-chain fatty acids (C4 and C6).
 Fatty acids are rarely found free in nature but rather occur as
part of the structure of more complex lipid molecules.

41 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids
 The carbon chain of a fatty acid may or may not contain carbon–
carbon double bonds. On the basis of this consideration, fatty
acids are classified as
 saturated fatty acids (SFAs),
 monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFAs), or
 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs).
 A saturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with a carbon chain in
which all carbon–carbon bonds are single bonds.
 The structural formula for the 16-carbon SFA is

42 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
  The structural formula for a fatty acid is usually written in a
more condensed form than the preceding structural formula.
 Two alternative structural notations for palmitic acid are

 monounsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with a carbon

chain in which one carbon–carbon double bond is present.
 In biochemically important MUFAs, the configuration about
the double bond is nearly always cis .
 Different ways of depicting the structure of a MUFA follow.

43 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
44 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
  polyunsaturated fatty acid is a fatty acid with a carbon
chain in which two or more carbon–carbon double bonds are
present. Up to six double bonds are found in biochemically
important PUFAs.
 Double-bond positioning determined in this manner is denoted
by using the Greek lower-case letter omega (ω).
Eg. omega-3 fatty acid
is an unsaturated fatty acid with its endmost double bond three
carbon atoms away from its methyl end.
 An example of an omega-3 fatty acid is

45 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
  An omega-6 fatty acid is an unsaturated fatty acid with its
endmost double bond six carbon atoms away from its methyl
end.
 The following three acids all belong to the omega-6 fatty acid
family.

46 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Contains
one double Contains
bond more than
one double
bond

12/04/2022 47
 Fats and Oils

 Fats are naturally occurring complex mixtures of triacylglycerol

molecules.
 Oils are also naturally occurring complex mixtures of
triacylglycerol molecules.
 both are triacylglycerol mixtures,
 what distinguishes a fat from an oil?
 A fat is a triacylglycerol mixture that is a solid or a semi-solid
at room temperature (25°C) and Generally obtained from
animal sources.
 An oil is a triacylglycerol mixture that is a liquid at room
temperature (25°C) and Generally, oils are obtained from plant
sources.

48 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 • Fats are composed largely of triacylglycerols in which saturated

fatty acids predominate & can pack closely together because

of the “linearity” of their fatty acid chains , thus causing the
higher melting points associated with fats.
• mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids fats cannot pack as

tightly together because of “bends” in their fatty acid chains .

The result is lower melting points.
 Oil: A mixture of triacylglycerols that is liquid because it
contains a high proportion of unsaturated fatty acids.
 Fat: A mixture of triacylglycerols that is solid because it contains
a high proportion of saturated fatty acids.

49 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Waxes

 Waxes are part of the lipid family.

 Waxes are esters of long-chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
(having 14-36 carbon atoms) with long-chain alcohol(having 16-30
carbon atoms).

50 GEZU.F 14-36 carbons 16-30 carbons 12/04/2022

51 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 A wax coat protects surface of many plant leaves from water
loss and attack by microorganisms.
Carnauba wax, a major ingredients of car wax and floor
polish, comes from the leaves of a South American palm
tree.
Beeswax is largely myricyl palmitate , the ester of myricyl
alcohol and palmitic acid
Waxes also coat
 skin,
 hairs and feathers, and
 help keep them pliable and water-proof

52 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
53 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
Phospholipids: They are esters of phosphoric acids.
 There are two main types of phospholipids in cellular membranes
Phosphogleceride and sphingomyelins
1. Phosphoglecerides: They are also known as Phosphaitdyl
choline (lecithin).
They are built from Glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate + another
alcohol

54 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Eg.Lecithin and cephalin are glycerophospholipids
Abundant in brain and nerve tissues.
Found in egg yolk, wheat germ, and yeast.

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 55
2.sphingomyelins:

They do not contain glycerol. Instead, they contain

 sphingosine

 a long-chain unsaturated amino alcohol

 Only one fatty acid is attached to the sphingisine.

 Sphingomylins are found in brain and nervous tissue and in the

myelin sheath, the protective coat of nerves.

56 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Sphingomyelin: sphingosine, fatty acid, phosphate
and choline
Sphingomyelins found in myelin sheath around neurons

57 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
58 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Glycolipids: A complex lipid contain a
siphingosin ,F.A ,a carbohydrate (glucose or
galactose)and often called cerebrosides because of
their abundance in brain tissues.

Cerebroside

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 59
 Lipoproteins

 Lipoproteins are used to transport the water insoluble lipids such

as triglycerides, phospholipids and cholesterol, in the blood.
 Chylomicrons transport primarily triglycerides from the
digestive track.
 two types:
I. LDLs (low density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol,
triglycerides and phospholipids from the liver to other tissues

II. HDLs (high density lipoproteins) transport cholesterol and

phospholipids back to the liver.

60 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
61 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Derived Lipids
 Derived lipids are the substances derived from simple and
compound lipids by hydrolysis.
  The most common derived lipids are steroids, terpenes and
carotenoids.
 Steroids are a family of lipids found in plants and animal
 A steroid contains four fused carbon ring: 17 carbon atoms
make the structural unit of steroids known as steroid nucleus.
 Steroids do not contain fatty acids, they are
nonsaponifiable, and are not hydrolyzed on heating.
 Steroid nucleus is found in a number of extremely important
biological molecules: cholesterol, adrenocorticoid hormones,
the sex hormone and bile acids.

62 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
  Cholesterol is found only in animal cells.
 A typical animal cell membrane contains about
60% phospholipids and 25% cholesterol.
 Essential component of cell membranes
 Used as raw material for
 sex hormones and  Cholesterol is a precursor for other
 adrenocorticoid hormones important steroids including:
 Used to make bile salts Bile salts
Hormones
Vitamin D
63 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 cholic acid, a bile acid glycine, an amino acid

O
CH3 CH2
OH C
N COO- Na+
CH3
H
CH3 Polar region

HO OH
Non polar region

sodium glycocholate, a bile salt

Bile salt :is a yellowish-brown or green liver secretion that is stored and
concentrated in the gallbladder .
 It is important in lipid digestion
64 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
Steroid Hormons:
Hormons: A chemical messenger secreted by specific
glands and carried by the blood to a target tissue,
where it triggers a particular response.
 Steroid hormones are biosynthesized from cholesterol

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 65
Adrenocorticoid Hs.:
 Adernal glands are small mounds of tissue located at
the top of each kidney.
 The outer layer of the gland , the adrenal cortex ,
produce a number of potent steroid Hs.,
 the adrenocorticoids are classified in to:
↙ ↘
Mineralocrticoids Glucocorticoids
regulate concentrations enhance carbohydrates
of Na⁺ in body fluids metabolism
( aldosterone ) (cortisol)

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 66
 aldosterone, which regulates electrolytes and water balance by
the kidneys.
cortisone, a glucocorticoid, which increases blood glucose
level and stimulates the synthesis of glycogen in the liver .
12/04/2022 GEZU.F 67
 Sex hormons: the tests and ovaries produce steroids
that functions as sex Hs,which are responsable of
secondary sex characteristic appearnase.

Tests in male produce Ovaries in female produce

sperm and male sex H. estrogen and progesterone.
testesrone (androgen).

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 68
12/04/2022 GEZU.F 69
Prostaglandines (PGs):
 Prostaglandins are short-lived lipids that are produced by injured
tissues and are responsible for various physiological responses ,
including pain, swelling and fever
 A substance derived from unsaturated F.A with
hormone like effects on a number of body tissues.
 is a cyclic compound synthesized in the body from the
20 carbon unsaturated F.A arachidonic acid , like
prostaglandin E 2 (PGE 2).
 Clinically, PGs have many functions as stimulate blood
clotting ,involved in every phase of reproductive
process.

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 70
• The structures of some common prostaglandins are shown
below:

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 71
 • Not produced when anti-inflammatory drugs such as
aspirin inhibit their synthesis.

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 72
 Isoprenoids : Are a vast array of biomlecules that contain
repeating five-carbon structural units known as isoprene
(methylbutadiene) units.
 The isoprenoids consist of terpenes and steroids.

Terpenes :
 are linear or cyclic compounds formed by condensation of two
or more isoprene units
 are found largely in the essential oils of plants (have been
used in perfumes and medicine), like vitamin A,K,E , carotenes
, sequaline.
73 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Terpenes

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 74
 3. proteins
 A protein is a naturally-occurring, unbranched polymer in which
the monomer units are amino acids.
 Proteins are needed for the synthesis of enzymes, certain
hormones, and some blood components; for the maintenance and
repair of existing tissues; for the synthesis of new tissue; and
sometimes for energy.
 All proteins contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen; most also contain sulfur.
 Casein, the main protein of milk, contains phosphorus, an
element very important in the diet of infants and children.
Hemoglobin, the oxygen-transporting protein of blood, contains
iron.
Proteins are the main enzymes in a cell and regulate metabolism
by selectively accelerating chemical reactions.
12/04/2022 GEZU.F 75
 The different uses of Proteins include: structural support,
storage, transport of other substances, intercellular signaling,
Movement and defense against foreign substances
 All proteins are constructed from the same set of 20 monomers,
called amino acids.
 A polypeptide is a polymer of amino acids connected in a specific
sequence
 More than one polypeptide coming together to form a protein -
subunit

12/04/2022 GEZU.F 76
 Peptide bond
Is the amide bond formed between the amino group of one amino acid and
the carboxyl group of another amino acid.

 Peptides are classified by the number of amino acid units in the chain. A molecule
containing two amino acids joined by an amide bond is called a dipeptide.
 Those containing 3 to 10 amino acids are called tripeptides, tetrapeptides,
pentapeptides, and so on.
 Molecules containing 10 to 20 amino acids are called oligopeptides.
 A protein is a peptide in which at least 50 amino acid residues are present.

77 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Proteins, on the basis of chemical composition, are classified as
simple or complex.
 A simple protein is a protein in which only amino acid residues
are present.
 More than one protein subunit may be present in a simple protein,
but all subunits contain only amino acids.
 A conjugated protein is a protein that has one or more non-
amino acid entities present in its structure in addition to one or
more peptide chains.
 These non amino acid components, which may be organic or
inorganic, are called prosthetic groups.
 A prosthetic group is a non-amino acid group present in a
conjugated protein.
78 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 Amino acids
 Are the Building Blocks for Proteins
 An amino acid is an organic compound that contains both an
amino (-NH2) group and a carboxyl (-COOH) group.
 The amino acids found in proteins are always α-amino acids.
 The general structural formula for an α-amino acid is

79 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
  The R group present in an α -amino acid is called the amino

acid side chain.

 Over 700 different naturally occurring amino acids are known,

but only 20 of them, called standard amino acids, are normally

present in proteins.
 amino acids are grouped according to side-chain polarity. In
this system there are four categories:
1. nonpolar amino acids
2. polar neutral amino acids
3. polar acidic amino acids and
4. polar basic amino acids.

80 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
81 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
82 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
83 GEZU.F 12/04/2022
 structural organizations of proteins
1. primary structure
 The primary (1°) structure of a polypeptide or protein refers to the
sequence of amino acids in its polypeptide chain.
 its unique sequence of amino acids.

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 2. Secondary structure of a protein
 The secondary structure refers to ordered arrangements
(conformations) of amino acids in localized regions of a
polypeptide or protein molecule.
 results from hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the
polypeptide backbone.
 The two most common types of secondary structure are the
alpha helix (α-helix) and the beta pleated sheet (β- pleated
sheet).
 The type of interaction responsible for both of these types of
secondary structure is hydrogen bonding between a carbonyl
oxygen atom of a peptide linkage and the hydrogen atom of an
amino group of another peptide linkage farther along the
backbone.

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The Alpha Helix
An alpha helix structure is a protein secondary structure in which a single
protein chain adopts a shape that resembles a coiled spring (helix), with the coil
configuration maintained by hydrogen bonds.

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 The Beta Pleated Sheet
A beta pleated sheet structure is a protein secondary structure in which two or
more fully extended protein chain segments in the same or different
molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds form between oxygen and hydrogen peptide linkage atoms
that are either in different parts of a single chain that folds back on itself
(intrachain bonds) or between atoms in different peptide chains in those
proteins that contain more than one chain (interchain bonds).

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 3. Tertiary Structure
 Tertiary protein structure is the overall three-dimensional shape
of a protein that results from the interactions between amino
acid side chains (R groups) that are widely separated from each
other within a peptide chain.
 refers to the overall folding pattern and arrangement in space of all
atoms in a single polypeptide chain
 A good analogy for the relationships among the primary,
secondary, and tertiary structures of a protein is that of a telephone
cord .
 The primary structure is the long, straight cord.
 The coiling of the cord into a helical arrangement gives the
secondary structure.
 The supercoiling arrangement the cord adopts after you hang up
the receiver is the tertiary structure.

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 A schematic diagram showing the tertiary structure of the single-chain protein
myoglobin.
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 4. Quarternary structure

 Quarternary structure is the organization among the various peptide chains in

a multimeric protein.
 results from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits.
 Collagen is a fibrous protein of three polypeptides that are supercoiled like a
rope.
 This provides the structural
strength for their role in connective
tissue.
Hemoglobin is a
globular protein
with two copies
of two kinds
of polypeptides.

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 protein denaturation
 Changes in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other
factors can unravel or denature a protein.
 These forces disrupt the hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and
disulfide bridges that maintain the protein’s shape.
 Some proteins can return to their functional shape after
denaturation, but others cannot, especially in the crowded
environment of the cell.

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 4. Nucleic Acids

The 4th type of macromolecules

The chemical link between generations
The source of genetic information in chromosomes
Dictate amino-acid sequence in proteins
Give information to chromosomes, which is then
passed from parent to offspring

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  Nucleic acids are polymers of monomers called nucleotides.
 There are Two types of nucleic acids,
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
 Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
 Each nucleotide consists of three parts:
 a nitrogen base,
 a pentose sugar, and
 a phosphate group.

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12/04/2022 GEZU.F 97

THE SUGAR-PHOSPHATE BACKBONE

P

The nucleotides are all orientated in

the same direction P

The phosphate group joins the 3rd

Carbon of one sugar to the 5th Carbon P
of the next in line.
P

© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS

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Hydrogen bonds
P
G C
DNA IS MADE OF TWO STRANDS P
OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE P
C G
P
P
C G
P
P
A T
P
P
T A
P
P
© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS T A
P
 Nitrogen Bases
• The nitrogen bases in nucleotides consist of two general types:
pyrimidines: cytosine (C), thymine (T) and Uracil (U)
purines: adenine (A) and guanine (G)

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 Pentose Sugars
• There are two related pentose sugars:
- RNA contains ribose
- DNA contains deoxyribose
• The sugars have their carbon atoms numbered with primes to distinguish
them from the nitrogen bases.
• The only difference between the sugars is the lack of an oxygen atom
on carbon 2 in deoxyribose.

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12/04/2022 GEZU.F 101

 DNA IS MADE OF TWO STRANDS OF POLYNUCLEOTIDE

The sister strands of the DNA molecule run in opposite

directions (antiparallel)
They are joined by the bases
Each base is paired with a specific partner:
A is always paired with T
G is always paired with C
Purine with Pyrimidine
Thus the sister strands are complementary but not identical
The bases are joined by hydrogen bonds, individually weak
but collectively strong.

© 2016 Paul Billiet ODWS

• DNA molecules have two polynucleotide strands (double strand) that spiral
around to form a double helix.

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 • RNA molecule is single polynucleotide chain
(single strand).
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 • a)- Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the blueprint for
construction of a protein.
b)- Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the construction site where the
protein is made in the ribosome.
c)- Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the truck delivering the proper
amino acid to the site at the right time.

 Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the blueprint for construction of a

protein.
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the construction site where the
protein is made in the ribosome.
 Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the truck delivering the proper amino
acid to the site at the right time.

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 RNA is made on a DNA template
 The information contained in DNA is passed to a form of RNA
called messenger RNA (mRNA) by transcription (“rewriting”).
 Translation involves tRNA, mRNA, ribosome and Enzymes
The synthesis of specific protein under the direction of specific
gene is complex
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 THANK YOU

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