LOGICAL FALLACIES

Illogical statements that weaken arguments

 Overview of logical fallacies
• Fallacy: An argument that contains mistakes in reasoning
• Fallacies may be committed intentionally, unintentionally, or for
fun (jokes, memes…)
1. Fallacies of relevance (Chapter 5)
– Mistakes in reasoning because the premises (fact, opinion) are logically
irrelevant to the conclusion (opinion).

2. Fallacies of insufficient evidence (Chapter 6)

– Mistakes in reasoning because the premises, though logically relevant to
the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence to support the
conclusion.
 CHAPTER 5

FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

I haven’t seen the pig since

Do you see my pig
I put on this new outfit.
passing by?
 CONCEPT OF RELEVANCE

- One statement is relevant to another when it

provides evidence either for or against that other
statement (even if it is completely false).
- A statement can be:
- positively relevant
- negatively relevant
- logically irrelevant
 CONCEPT OF RELEVANCE (cont)
• Positively relevant:
– All dogs have five legs. Rover is a dog. So, Rover has
five legs.

• Negatively relevant:
– Maggie is studying at a high school. So, Maggie is a
professor.

• Logically irrelevant:
– The earth moves around the sun. Therefore, capital
punishment must be stopped.
 Activity: Sort them out
1. Carlos recently gave Amy an engagement ring. So, Carlos loves Amy. PR
2. Thousands of tobacco farm workers will lose their jobs if cigarette taxes are
doubled. Therefore, smoking does not cause cancer. LI
3. Thousands of tobacco farm workers will lose their jobs if cigarette taxes are
doubled. Therefore, cigarette taxes should not be doubled. PR
4. The last three coin tosses have been heads. So, the next coin toss will
surely be tails. NR
5. You should believe in God. You have everything to gain if God does exist,
and little to lose if He doesn’t. PR
6. Peter and his wife are both over 6 feet tall. Therefore, their daughter is likely
to be over 6 feet tall, too. PR
7. Martina partied all night last night. Therefore, she will do well on her critical
thinking test next week. LI
 ELEVEN FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE

1. Personal attack (Ad Hominem)

2. Attacking the motive (related to benefits)
3. Look who’s talking (Tu Quoque)
4. Two wrongs make a right
5. Scare tactics (appeal to force)
6. Appeal to pity
7. Bandwagon argument (Appeal to popularity)
8. Straw man
9. Red herring
10. Equivocation
11. Begging the question (circular reasoning)
1. Personal attack (Ad Hominem)

* Attacks the person rather than the issue.

Examples:
1. Sam is divorced, so how can he make sound financial
decisions for the city?
2. Mr. Spock is not an effective CEO because he has ugly
pointed ears.

3. Dr. Smith’s books about plant genetics are worthless

because he used to tell a lie at high school.

 1. Personal attack (Ad Hominem)

Common pattern:

F: A is a bad person (in one way or another).

Therefore, his/her opinion or argument must be bad.
 1. Personal attack (Ad Hominem)
2nd Presidential Debate (Oct, 2016)
Hillary: What we saw and heard on
Friday was Donald talking about
women, what he thinks about
women, what he does to women. He
said the video doesn’t represent
who he is. But I think it’s clear to
anyone who heard that it represents
who he is.
Trump: If you look at Bill Clinton, far
worse. Mine are words, his was
action. His was what he’s done to
women… And I will tell you that when
Hillary brings up a point like that and
she talks about words that I said 11
years ago, I thinks it’s disgraceful,
and it’s ashamed of herself.
 2. Attacking the motive

Common pattern:

X is biased or has questionable motives.

Therefore, X’s argument or claim should be rejected.
Example:

Mr. X said that our company cannot downsize the staff

because we need a strong labor force. Why should we listen
to him? With his sick leave of 2 months, he will surely be on
top of the dismissal list.
 2. Attacking the motive

* Criticizes the arguer’s motivation.

Examples:
1. The president of Student Affairs Department had a
speech to persuade all students to take a bus to school to
protect the Earth. I don’t know if he wants to protect the
Earth, or is it because his father is a bus driver?
2. Linda suggested that class attendance should not be
checked daily because adult students cannot be
managed like children. Why should the teacher listen to
her, a regularly late student last year?
 3. Look who’s talking (Tu Quoque)*

Common pattern:
X fails to follow his or her advice.
Therefore, X’s argument or claim should be rejected.
You drink day and night. You should Good advice from a man with a
.
stop drinking to improve your health. glass of wine in his hand! Why
shouldn’t you stop drinking?

A B

Tu Quoque*: And you, too.

 3. Look who’s talking (Tu Quoque)*

* Attacks the arguer because (s)he fails to practice what

(s)he preaches.
Example:
A: You are hanging out too much. How can you have
good exam results?
B: Hey, who said hello to me at the bar last night? It was you,
I suppose?
 3. Look who’s talking (Tu Quoque)*

* Attacks the arguer because (s)he fails to practice what

(s)he preaches.

There may be a conversation

Example:
like this:
A. My wife has a poor taste.
She always chooses wrong
clothing items.
B. Never laugh at your wife’s
choices. You are one of them!

Natural Solutions Magazine

 4. Two wrongs make a right

Justifies a wrongful act by claiming others are bad or worse.

Common pattern:
I did what the other did.
So I didn’t do anything wrong.

Example:

Student: Teacher, you can’t punish me for cheating on

your test. The student next to me also cheated. Why me?
4. Two wrongs make a right

Look at the
woman going over
there!

A girl being fined by the police for going out

without a good reason
 5. Scare tactics (appeal to force)

Threatens to harm the listener if conclusion not accepted;

this threat is irrelevant to arguer’s conclusion.
Wrong doer: Do you know
Example 1: who I am?
5. Scare tactics

Example 2:
 6. Appeal to pity

Inappropriately appeals to feelings of pity from the listener or reader.

Examples:

1.

2. Student: Teacher, I hope you won’t be hard enough to prohibit me from

taking the exam because of my frequent absences. I lost all the money my
parents gave for one month’s food, and my girlfriend left me for a more
handsome man. I was so upset!
6. Appeal to pity

Chúng tôi cảm nhận sâu sắc về vấn đề đạo đức

ngành y, hy vọng các đại biểu và nhân dân nhìn
Example 4
nhận khoan dung với chúng tôi. Một năm ngành
y khám bệnh cho 121 triệu lượt người, một con số
lớn như thế nên không thể tránh khỏi những sơ
xuất.” (NewsZing, Nov, 2013)

Ex-minister of Health: We well perceive

medical ethics. I hope governmental
representatives and people to be tolerant
toward us. Every year, we have to cure as
many as 121 million patients, so mistakes are
unavoidable.”
7. Bandwagon argument
(Appeal to popularity)

Common pattern:

Everybody (or a majority group) does X.

Therefore, you should believe in, or do X, too.
 7. Bandwagon argument
(Appeal to popularity)

Makes a claim due to arguer’s desire to be popular or valued

rather than appealing to logically relevant evidence.
Examples:

1. Student: Look at those trendy students with dyed hair and

nose rings! You must change your style right away!
2. A’s friend: I can’t believe you are doing homework on
Saturday night while many others are partying! Go out and
enjoy yourself!
 7. Bandwagon argument
(Appeal to popularity)
ample 3
 7. Bandwagon argument
(Appeal to popularity)
ample 4

Looter 1: I saw the beer cans ‘un-

possessed’, so I looted some like others.

Looter 2: “Actually, I picked up the beer

with the crowd psychology, not thinking
Beer looting in
that I was looting.” Đồng Nai, 2014

1. Lúc ấy tôi thấy bia “vô chủ”, nhiều người lấy nên cũng vô tư làm theo.

2. Thực sự tôi nhặt bia với tâm lý đám đông chứ không nghĩ mình đang
hôi của.)
 8. Straw man

Common pattern:

X’ view is false or unjustified (but it is misinterpreted).

Therefore, X’s view should be rejected.

Example 1:

Evolution is false! How could a mouse evolve into an

elephant?
 8. Straw man

• misrepresents the original argument to

attack the arguer easily
Example 2:
Bob: I feel sick this morning and I have to stay home. I must
ask the teacher to make up the test next week.
Bill: You don’t feel like taking the test today and you
demand another chance? No way!
9. Red herring
 9. Red herring
• draws attention away from the original point 
Example:

1. You’re not being fair by denying me the opportunity

to have a make-up test. I’m paying for this course!

2.
 9. Red herring
• draws attention away from the original point 
Example: 2nd Presidential Debate, (October, 2016)

COOPER: You described kissing women without consent. That is sexual

assault. You bragged that you have sexually assaulted women. Do you
understand that?

TRUMP: No, I didn’t say that at all. I don’t think you understood what was - this
was locker room talk. I’m not proud of it. I apologize to my family… You
know, when we have a world where you have ISIS chopping off heads,
where you have - and, frankly, drowning people in steel cages, where you
have wars and horrible, horrible sights all over, where you have so many
bad things happening, this is like medieval times. Yes, I’m very
embarrassed by it. I hate it. But it’s locker room talk, and it’s one of those
things. 
 9. Red herring
• draws attention away from the original point. 
Example: 2nd Presidential Debate, (October, 2016)

COOPER: You described kissing women without consent. That is sexual

assault. You bragged that you have sexually assaulted women. Do you
understand that?

TRUMP: No, I didn’t say that at all. I don’t think you understood what was - this
was locker room talk. I’m not proud of it. I apologize to my family… You
know, when we have a world where you have ISIS chopping off heads,
where you have - and, frankly, drowning people in steel cages, where
you have wars and horrible, horrible sights all over, where you have
so many bad things happening, this is like medieval times. Yes, I’m
very embarrassed by it. I hate it. But it’s locker room talk, and it’s one of
those things. 
 10. Equivocation
key words used in two or more senses in the same
argument 
Examples:
1. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.  Therefore,
President Bush is not worthy at all.
2. A: “I really get sick with those hot dogs.”
B: “Yeah, it’s really hot now. Give them a bath and you’ll see
they’re lovely!”
3. I see some cars have the words “Please don’t kiss me” at the
back. Obviously, objects do not enjoy that wonderful feeling
as we humans do.
10. Equivocation
 11. Begging the question (circular reasoning)

simply restates the conclusion or argues in a circle 

Examples:
1. Bungee-jumping is dangerous because it’s unsafe.

2. Capital punishment is morally wrong because it is ethically impermissible to

inflict death as punishment for a crime.

3. Kylie: God wrote the Bible.

Ned: How do you know?
Kylie: Because it says so in the Bible, and what the Bible
says is true.
Ned: How do you know what the Bible says is true?
Kylie: Because God wrote the Bible.
11. Begging the question (circular reasoning)
11. Begging the question (circular reasoning)

A: I’m sick of poverty. I’ll see

how to rob the bank. First, I’ll
get a gun.
B: How can we have money to
buy a gun?
A: You idiot, with the money
robbed from the bank!
B: Oh yeah, how can’t I know
that?
11. Begging the question (circular reasoning)

Former Minister of Education:

Quá trình dạy và học đã thay đổi từ chỗ dạy cho số đông
sang phát triển năng lực cho từng học sinh. Trước đây, cô
giáo thường trả lời ‘tôi dạy một lớp 40 cháu’, nay cô sẽ trả lời
‘tôi dạy 40 cháu trong một lớp.’
(Vnexpress: 11/6/2014)
Former Minister of Education:
Our system has changed from mass education to personalized
education. Previously, a teacher said, ‘I teach a class of 40
students’, but now she will say, ‘I teach 40 students in a class’.
(Vnexpress: 11/6/2014)
 YOUR TURN

FALLACY OR NOT FALLACY?

 The Oscars Slap (March 27, 2022)

Chris Rock: "Jada I love you, 'G.I. Jane 2,' can't wait to see it," 
Will Smith: “Leave my wife's name out of your f**king mouth."
 FALLACY OR NOT FALLACY?

“This is the first time I’ve ever seen the media cover black-on-
black crime, so I’m actually quite surprised by this,” Watters
said.

“If Mel Gibson (white Hollywood film maker) had done this,
Nancy Pelosi (Democratic politician) would be kneeling in
the capital right now. He (Will Smith) would be the only guy
not being allowed out on bail in L.A. County.”
Fox News host Jesse Watters
 Which fallacy is it?

“I would like to just ask the Chinese for a formal apology,” Watters said. “This
coronavirus originated in China, and I have not heard one word from the Chinese. A
simple ‘I am sorry’ would do.”
 Which fallacy is it?

Fox News host Jesse Watters: “Let me

tell you why it happened in China,” he
declared. “They have these markets
where they were eating raw bats and
snakes.”
“They are very hungry people. The
Chinese communist government cannot
feed the people. And they are
desperate, this food is uncooked, it is
unsafe. And that is why scientists
believe that’s where it originated from.”
A travel show host in a
Pacific island nation
How many fallacies can you find?
Which fallacy is it?
Which fallacy is it?
Which fallacy is it?
Which fallacy is it?
FALLACY OR NOT FALLACY?

Do you want to report things to our teacher? I’ll

wait for you at the school gate in a moment.

Signed
Mysterious
(An almost school gang leader)
Which fallacy is it?
FALLACY OR NOT FALLACY?
PRACTICE
 A fallacy or not a fallacy?
1. The new Volkswagon Beetle is the coolest car around. It’s selling like hotcakes.
You should ask your parents to buy you one.
2. Jason: Did you hear Andrew’s class presentation on upper-class rights and
privileges?
Kyle: Yeah, but I don’t take any ideas in his arguments. He’s just a rich snob who
likes to hear himself talk.
3. Bill Baxter deserves to be promoted to vice president. He has three small children,
and just last week his wife was diagnosed with breast cancer.
4. My driving instructor, Mr. Peterson, told me that it’s dangerous to drive
without a seat belt. But why should I listen to him? Last week I saw him driving
without a seat belt.
5. Malcolm Cox isn’t qualified to be a kindergarten teacher. He’s lazy and
incompetent and has twice been convicted of child abuse.
 A fallacy or not a fallacy?
6. Jeff and Maribeth slept together on prom night. Sleep is a state of
unconscious or semiconscious rest or repose. It follows that Jeff and
Maribeth must have spent a very restful night together.
7. Martha is a good supervisor because she supervises the company's
personnel office effectively.
8. Jesse Jackson has argued that last week’s police shooting was racially
motivated. But this is exactly what you would expect Jackson to say. After
all, he’s black.
9. Al: I can’t believe it! My bank made a mistake on my account balance.
There’s an extra $3,000 in my checking account.
Joe: Are you going to report the mistake?
Al: Why should I? They’ve been ripping me off for years with their high
ATM fees.
 A fallacy or not a fallacy?
10. My girlfriend asked me to do exercise with her. I I went running with her in
the park. This morning she got zero for Math and got angry with me.
How’s that possible?
11. People who watch little or no TV are generally more active than people
who watch a lot of TV because the major networks send hidden
messages to make people passive, sleepy, and wanting more TV.
12. Recently, a scientific study found that eating large amounts of chocolate
ice cream is actually good for you. We can’t accept this conclusion,
however, because the study was funded entirely by Baskin-
Robbins and other leading ice-cream makers.
13. Only man has an immortal soul. No woman is a man. Therefore, no
woman has an immortal soul.
 A fallacy or not a fallacy?
14. Mother to daughter: Nana was asking about you the other day. She’s so
lonely and depressed since Grandpa passed away, and her Alzheimer’s
seems to get worse every day. She’s done so much for you over the
years. Don’t you think you should pay her a visit?
15. According to the song, the pinball wizard is deaf, dumb, and blind. Dumb
people aren't very smart. So, the pinball wizard isn't very smart.
16. The Red Cross is worried about the treatment of the suspected terrorists
held by the U.S. at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. What do they want the U.S.
to do with them, put them on the beaches of Florida for a vacation or take
them skiing in the Rockies? Come on, let's worry about the Americans.
(adapted from a newspaper call-in column)
 Assignment

Read some trending newspaper articles on the social

media and the follow-up comments under them. Find at
least FIVE fallacies in the articles (if any) and in the
comments.

Deadline: Tuesday after mid-term exam

Link to submit:
https://forms.gle/JPHz2J84s4SqaYHh8

Note: Delete lesson slides; only keep the assignment slides.

 Assignment
Text 1:

Fallacy type:

Source:
 Assignment
Text 2:

Fallacy type:

Source:
 Assignment
Text 3:

Fallacy type:

Source:
 Assignment
Text 4:

Fallacy type:

Source:
 Assignment
Text 5:

Fallacy type:

Source:
Thank you