ALLOY STEELS

FERROUS AND NON-FERROUS METALS 9

Effect of alloying additions on steel (Mn, Si, Cr, Mo, V Ti & W) – stainless and
tool steels – HSLA Maraging steels – Grey, white, malleable, spheroidal – alloy
cast irons, Copper and copper alloys – Brass, Bronze and Cupronickel –
Aluminium and Al-Cu – precipitation strengthening treatment – Bearing alloys,
Mg-alloys, Ni-based super alloys, special non-ferrous metals and alloys of low
coefficient of the thermal expansion, high corrosion resistance, heat resistant
etc.
 Classification of “Carbon Steels”

There are four main groups of carbon steels

1. Low carbon steels (> 80% of the steel production)
< 0.20 %C Used structural purposes.
2. Medium Carbon Steels
0.25 – 0.55 %C Used for machine parts.
3. Eutectoids Steels
0.6 – 0.8 %C Used for hard wearing rails.
4. Tools Steels
0.9 – 2.2 %C Used for tools and dies.
 INTRODUCTION
Plain Carbon Steel used :
a) For Low Strength
b) At ordinary Temperature
c) In atmosphere not highly corrosive
d) Low Hardenability
e) As Temperature increases Hardness decreases
 All the above limitations can be overcome by using
Alloying Element

Alloy Steels = Plain Carbon Steel + Alloying Elements

An Alloy Steel may be defined as one whose characteristic

properties are due to some element other than carbon
Note: 1) Mn (0.90%) and Si (0.30%) are present in Plain Steels but not
consider as alloying element, they act as deoxidizers
 PUPOSE OF ALLOYING

I. Increase Hardenability
II. Improve Strength at ordinary temperatures
III. Improve mechanical properties at either high or low
temperatures
IV. Improve toughness at any minimum hardness or strength
V. Increase wear resistance, corrosion resistance
VI. Improve magnetic properties
 CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
AlloyingElements may be classified according to their distribution in
two main constituents of Annealed Steel.
EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS UPON
FERRITE(GROUP 1)

 Probably some solubility of all the elements in ferrite but some elements
are not found extensively in carbide phase

 Some elements are dissolved both in Ferrite as well as form carbide

depending upon amount of carbon present

 The tendency of certain element to exist in both groups is show by size

of the arrowhead in Table 1.
Table 1: Behavior of individual Elements in Annealed Steel
Fig-1
Fig-2
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
UPON CARBIDE (GROUP 2)
Carbide are brittle & hard, their effect on the room temperature
tensile properties is similar regardless of the specific composition.
The elements have influences on hardening temperature and
soaking time.
Complex carbides are sluggish to dissolved which ultimately
reduces grain growth as well as % of carbon in austenite and hence
reduction in Hardenability
Chromium & Vanadium carbides are outstanding in hardness and
wear resistance
Hardness and wear resistance are determined by
a) Amount
b) Size
c) Distribution of the hard particles( carbides)
All these factors are controlled by chemical composition,
method of manufacturing and heat treatment
 INFLUENCE OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
ON THE Fe- Fe3C DIAGRAM
The presence of alloying elements will change

a) The critical range

b) The position of eutectoid point

c) The location of the alpha and gamma fields indicated

in the binary Iron- Iron carbide diagram

The critical range

Ni & Mn lowers the critical temperature on heating while Mo ,

Al, Si, W and V tends to raise it.

Change in critical temperature will either raise or lower the proper

hardening temperature as compared with the corresponding Plain –Carbon
Steel
 POSITION OF EUTECTOID POINT

 All the alloying elements tend to reduce the carbon content of the
eutectoid

 Ni & Mn reduce eutectoid temperature shown in Fig-3

 Increasing amounts of Ni & Mn may lower the critical temperature

sufficiently to prevent the transformation of austenite on slow
cooling, they are known as Austenite stabilizing elements

 Example: Austenitic Stainless Steel

 Increasing amounts of Mo, Cr, Si and Ti tend to contract the pure

austenitic region and enlarge the field in which alpha(α) or delta iron
is found which is shown in fig- 4
Fig-3
 Fig- 4

Where the solid lines represent the contraction of the austenitic field with
the increasing amounts of the alloying element. Alloy compositions to the
right of the “triangles” will be largely austenite with increasing amounts of
carbide, while to the left of the austenite areas austenite with more or less
ferrite ( solution in alpha or delta iron ) will be found.
 EFFECT OF ALLOYING ELEMENTS
IN TEMPERING
 Tempering Temperature Hardness

 Alloying element retards the softening rate, so that alloy steels will
require a high tempering temperature to obtain a given hardness.
 element dissolved in ferrite such as Ni, Si & Mn have very little
effect on the hardness of tempered steel.
 Complex carbide forming elements such as Cr, W, Mo and V have
a very noticeable effect on the retardation of softening.
 They not only raise the tempering temperature, but when they are
present in higher percentage, the softening curves for these steels
will show a range in which the hardness may increases with
increase in tempering temperature. This characteristic behavior of
alloy steels containing carbide forming elements is known as
Secondary hardness.
 In fig 5 the effect of increasing Cr content
The specific effects of the alloying element in steel are summarized in
Table 1
Fig -5 Effect of increasing Cr content
 Table-1: Effects of the alloying element in steel
ELEMENT SOLID SOLUBILITY INFLUENCE INFLUENCE ON INFLUENCE EXERTED THROUGH PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS
ON AUSTENITE CARBIDE
IN GAMMA IN ALPHA FERRITE (HARDENABILITY)
IRON IRON

CARBIDE ACTION
FORMING DURING
TENDENCY TEMPERING

Al 1.1% 36% Hardens Increase hardenability mildly, Negative ….. 1. Deoxides efficiently
(increased by C) considerably if dissolved in austenite (graphitizes) 2. Restricts grain growth( by
by solid forming dispersed oxides or
solution nitrides)
3. Alloying element in Nitriding
steel

Cr 12.8% unlimited Hardens Increases hardenability Greater than Mn; Mildly resists 1. Increases resistance to
(20% with 0.5% C) slightly; moderately less than W softening corrosion and oxidation
increases 2. Increases hardenability
corrosion 3. Adds some strength; at high
resistance temperature
4. Resists abrasion and
wear( with high Carbon)

Co Unlimited 75% Hardens Decreases hardenability as Similar to Fe Sustains 1. Contributes to red hardness by
considerably dissolved hardness by solid hardening ferrite
by solid solution
solution

Mn unlimited 3% Hardens Increases hardenability Greater than Fe; Very little in usual 1. Counteracts brittleness from
markedly; moderately less than Cr percentage the sulfur
reduces 2. Increases hardenability in
plasticity expensively
± somewhat

Mo 3% 37.5% (less Provides age- Increases hardenability Strong; greater Opposes 1. Raise grain coarsening
(8% with 0.3% C) with lowered hardening strongly (Mo>Cr) than Cr softening, by temperature of austenite
temperature) system in high secondary 2. Deepens hardening
Mo-Fe alloys hardening 3. Counteracts tendency toward
temper brittleness
4. Raises hot and creep
strength, red hardness
5. Enhances corrosion
resistance in stainless steel
6. Forms abrasion resisting
particles

Ni Unlimited 10% Strengthens Increases hardenability Negative Very little in small 1. Strengthens unquenched or
(irrespective of and toughens mildly, but tends to retain (graphitizes) percentage annealed steels
carbon content) by solid austenite with higher carbon 2. Toughens Pearlitic-ferritic
solution steels( especially at low
temperature)
3. Renders high chromium iron
ELEMENT SOLID SOLUBILITY INFLUENCE ON INFLUENCE ON INFLUENCE EXERTED THROUGH CARBIDE PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS
FERRITE AUSTENITE
IN GAMMA IN ALPHA (HARDENABILITY
IRON IRON )
CARBIDE FORMING ACTION DURING
TENDENCY TEMPERING

P 0.5% 2.8% Hardens strongly Increases Nil … 1. Strengthens low-carbon steel

( irrespective of by solid solution hardenability 2. Increases resistance to
carbon content) corrosion
3. Improves machinability in
free-cutting steels

Si 2%± 18.5% (not Hardens with loss Increases Negative Sustains harness 1. Used as general purpose
(9% with much changed in plasticity hardenability (Graphitizes) by solid solution deoxidizer
0.35% C) by carbon) (Mn<Si<P) moderately 2. Alloying element for electrical
and magnetic sheet
3. Improve oxidation resistance
4. Increases hardenability of
steel carrying non
graphitizing elements
5. Strengthens low alloy steels

Ti 0.75% 6% ± ( less with Provides age- Probably increases Greatest known (2% Ti Persistent carbides 1. Fixes carbon in inert particles
(1% ± with lowered hardening system hardenability very renders 0.50% carbon probably a. Reduces martensitic hardness
0.20% C) temperature) in high Ti-Fe alloys strongly as steel unhardenable) unaffected. Some and hardenability in medium-
dissolved. The secondary Cr
carbide effects hardening steels
reduce b. Prevents formation of austenite
hardenability in high –Cr steels
c. Prevents localized depletion of
Cr in stainless steel during long
heating

W 6% (11% with 33% (less with Provides age- Increases Strong Opposes softening 1. Forms hard, abrasion-
0.25% C) lowered hardening system hardenability by secondary resistant particles in tool
temperature) in high W-Fe strongly in small hardening steels
alloys amounts 2. Promotes hardness and
strength at elevated
temperature

V 1%( 4% with unlimited Hardens Increases Very strong Maximum for 1. Elevates coarsening
0.20% C) moderately by solid hardenability very (V<Ti or Cb) secondary temperature of austenite
solution strongly, as hardening (promotes fine grain)
dissolved 2. Increases hardenability
(when dissolved)
3. Resists tempering and
causes marked secondary
hardening
 CLASSIFICATION OF ALLOY STEEL
BASED ON CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
 Nickel Steels(2XXX Series)
 Chromium Steel(5XXX Series)
 Nickel- Chromium Steel(3XXX Series)
 Manganese Steels(31XX Series)
 Molybdenum Steels(4XXX Series)
 Tungsten Steel
 Vanadium Steels
 Silicon Steels(92XX Series)
 Stainless Steels
 Ausforming Steels
 Maraging steels
 NICKEL STEELS(2XXX SERIES)
 Oldest & fundamental a steel alloying elements

 Unlimited solubility in gamma iron and highly soluble in ferrite which

provides strength and toughness of the phase.

 It lowers the critical temperature.

 Widens the temperature range for heat treatment.

 Retards the decomposition of austenite.

 Reduces the carbon content of eutectoid. That’s why unhardened Ni

steel contain higher % of pearlite than plain carbon steels.

 Pearlite form in Ni alloy steel is finer and tougher than pearlite of

unalloyed steels.
 Properties:

a) Improvement in toughness, plasticity and fatigue resistance.

 Application:

a) Suited for high strength structural steels in as rolled form

b) 3.5% nickel steel(23XX series) with low carbon are used extensively
for carburizing of Drive Gears, Connecting Rod, Bolts, Studs And
Kingpins

c) 5% nickel steels(25XX series) used for heavy duty application such

as bus and truck gears, cams and crankshafts.

Note: 2XXX series is now a days replaced by lower cost triple alloy
steels of 86XX series.
 CHROMIUM STEELS (5XXX SERIES)
Plain Chromium Steel (51XX Series)
% of Carbon % of Chromium
0.15 - 0.64 0.70 - 1.15
 It is less expensive alloying element than Ni

 Cr form simple carbides (Cr7C3, Cr4C) or complex carbides [(FeCr)3C]

 These carbides have high hardness and good wear resistance.

 Cr is soluble up to about 13 % in gamma iron and has unlimited
solubility in Alpha ferrite.

 In low carbon steel Cr goes into the solution and increases the strength
and toughness of the ferrite.

 The presence of 5% or more 5% of Cr will improve corrosion

resistance and high temperature properties of steel
 Application:

a) With medium carbon these steels are used for springs, engine
bolts, studs, axles etc.

b) High carbon(1%), High Chromium(1.5%) alloy steel(52100) is

characterized by high hardness and wear resistance and such
type of steels are used extensively for ball and roller bearings
and for crushing machinery

c) 1% C and 2-4% Cr has excellent magnetic properties and is

used for permanent magnet.
 NICKEL- CHROMIUM STEELS
(3XXX SERIES)
 In these steels the ratio of nickel to chromium is approximately 2.5
parts Ni to 1part Cr
 Both Ni as well as Cr some of the characteristic properties of each one is imparted into the
steel like , the effect of Ni in increasing toughness and ductility is combined with the effect of
Cr in improving hardenability and wear resistance .
 Low carbon Ni-Cr steel are carburized, Cr improve wear resistance while both together
improve toughness of core.
 Application:
a) With 1.5% Ni and 0.60% Cr (31XX Series) they are used for worm gears, piston pins, etc.
b) For heavy duty application such as aircraft gears, shafts and cams uses 33XX series( 3.5%
Ni+ 1.5% Cr)
c) Medium carbon Ni-Cr steels are used in the manufacture of automotive connecting rods and
drive shafts.
Note: These steels are replaced by triple alloy steel of the 87XX
and 88XX series because of low cost.
 MANGANESE STEELS (31XX SERIES)
 Manganese is one of the least expensive alloying element and
act as a deoxidizer
 It reduces the tendency towards hot shortness( red shortness)
resulting from sulfur presence, thereby enabling the metal to
be hot worked
Reason: when Mn is absent or low the predominant sulfide is
FeS, which forms a eutectic with iron and has tendency to form
thin continuous films around the primary crystals during
solidification of the steel. These films are liquid at the rolling
temperature of steel and produce a condition of hot shortness
which is a tendency to crack through the grain boundaries
during working
 Mn form Manganese sulfide which remains solid at the rolling
temperature and has a less effect on hot working properties of
steel
 Mn steel have Mn higher than 0.80%
 Properties:

a) Mn contributes to strength and hardness but to a lesser degree

than carbon, generally effective in higher carbon steels.

b) It is a weak carbide former and has a moderate effect on

hardenability

c) It lowers the critical range and decreases the carbon content of

eutectoid.

d) Fine grained Mn steel have unusual toughness and strength.

 Application:

a) Used in gears, spline shafts, axles and rifle barrels

b) Used for large forgings with air cooled by adding V to this steel

c) Yield properties equivalent to those plain carbon steel after

normalizing.

d) Hadfield manganese steel contain 12% Mn, after controlled heat

treatment , this steel has excellent wear resistance, high strength
and high ductility so that it can be used in power – shovel buckets
and teeth, grinding and crushing machinery and railway track

e) If this alloy slow cooled from 1750 degree F, the structure will
consist of large brittle carbides surrounding austenite grains
 MOLYBDENUM STEELS (4XXX SERIES)

 Mo is relatively expensive alloying element, having limited

solubility in gamma and alpha iron, and is strong carbide
former.

 It has strong effect on hardenability and like Cr, increases the

high temperature hardness and strength of steels

 Generally used in combination with Ni, Cr or both Ni and Cr

 Carburizing improves the wear resistance of the case and

the toughness of the core

 Plain Molybdenum steels (40XX and 44XX series) with low

carbon are carburized.
 Properties :

a) Cr-Mo Steels have good deep hardening characteristics, ductility and

weldability

b) The Ni-Mo steels (46XX and 48xx Series) posses high strength and
ductility from Ni, combined with deep hardening and improved
machinability imparted by Mo

c) They have good toughness with high fatigue strength and wear
resistance

d) The triple alloy Ni-Cr-Mo steels (43XX and 47XX series) have
advantage of Ni-Cr steel and along with high hardenability imparted by
Mo.
 Application:

a) (40XX and 44XX steels with low carbon) used for spline shafts,
transmission gears and where service condition are not too severe

b) (40XX and 44XX steels with high carbon)- for automotive coil and
leaf springs

c) Pressure Vessels, aircraft structural parts, automobile axles - 41XX

series

d) Transmission gear, chain pins, and bearings- 46XX and 48XX

series
 TUNGSTEN STEEL
 Tungsten has effect on hardenability, is a strong
carbide former

 It retards the softening of Martensite on tempering.

 W and Mo have same effect only difference is that W

requirement is large than Mo i.e. Appox. 2-3% W =
1% Mo

 Very expensive and required large quantity for

appreciable effect that’s why generally not used in
engineering steels

 Used in Tool
 VANADIUM STEELS
 V is most expensive alloying element, a powerful
deoxidizer and a strong carbide former which inhibits
grain growth.

 About 0.05% V produces a sound, uniform, fine grain

casting.

 Properties :

a) V has effect on hardenability, yielding high mechanical

properties on air cooling

b) Medium-Carbon Cr-V steels have high toughness and

strength where as high carbon has high hardness and
wear resistance
 Application:

a) Heavy locomotive and machinery forgings- carbon-vanadium steel-

normalized condition

b) Manufacture of Pins and crankshafts- case-hardened, low carbon-

Cr-V steels(61XX series)

c) Axles and springs- Medium carbon Cr-V Steels

d) Bearings and Tools- High carbon Cr-V Steels

 SILICON STEELS (92XX SERIES)
 Si act as a cheap deoxidizer, not a carbide former but rather
dissolved in ferrite, increasing strength and toughness.

 When more than 0.60% Si, it is classed as a silicon steel

 Steel with1-2% Si is known as Navy Steel used for structural

application with high yield point

 Hadfield Silicon steel with less than 0.01% carbon and about
3% Silicon has excellent magnetic properties- used in cores
and poles of electrical machinery

 Properly balanced combination of Mn and Si produces a steel

with unusually high strength and with good ductility and
toughness.

 Si-Mn Steel(9260) is widely used for coil, leaf springs, chisels

and punches.
STAINLESS STEELS
 It is used for corrosion and heat resisting application.
 A three numeral system is used to identify stainless steels. The last
two have no particular significance but first indicate the group as
follows

SERIES DESIGNATION GROUPS

2XX Cr-Ni-Mn ; non-hardenable,

austenitic, nonmagnetic
3XX Cr-Ni ; non-hardenable, austenitic,
nonmagnetic
4XX Cr; hardenable, martensitic,
magnetic
4XX Cr; non-hardenable, Ferritic,
magnetic

5XX Cr; low Cr, heat-resisting

 Fig- 4

Where the solid lines represent the contraction of the austenitic field with
the increasing amounts of the alloying element. Alloy compositions to the
right of the “triangles” will be largely austenite with increasing amounts of
carbide, while to the left of the austenite areas austenite with more or less
ferrite ( solution in alpha or delta iron ) will be found.
 The corrosion resisting property is due to a thin adherent, stable
chromium oxide or nickel oxide film. This property is not present
in low Cr structural Steel- only when Cr exceeds10%.

 Stainless steel contain large amount of Cr and form Fe-Cr-C alloys

which belong to a ternary system.

 Fig-6 & Fig 8 represent such ternary system.

 Steel with 12% Cr is compared with plain steel- the presence of

12% Cr has raised the critical temperatures and reduced the
austenite area.

 With proper amount of carbon stainless steel can be heat treated to

a martensitic structure as were plain carbon steel
Fig-6 : Cross Section Diagram For
Fig -7: Iron-Iron carbide Diagram
Steels Containing 12 Percentage
Chromium and varying carbon

Comparison of the Diagram For Steels Containing 12 Percentage

Chromium VS Plain Steel
 The microstructure of 12% Cr steel annealed condition is shown in
Fig-8.a , consist of ferrite and small carbide particles and Fig-8.b
show after quenched and tempered with martensite and bainite.

 with further increment in Cr (18%) trends to shrink austenitic region

in Fig-9

 In Fig-10 Microstructure of 18% Cr with vary percentage of carbon

are shown
a) Annealed; small carbide particles in b) Quenched from 1850°F, tempered at
ferrite matrix 600°F

MICROSTRUCTURE OF 12% Cr STEEL

 As the Cr percentage increases
to 18%, the austenite will not
formed(See Fig-9) on heating
at low carbon contain such
steels are non hardenable
since quenching will form only
ferrite of low hardness

Fig-9: Iron carbon alloy consist of 18% Cr

Fig-10 microstructure of an 18% Cr steel with varying carbon contain.

a) 0.03% C, water quenched form 2100°F etched in 20% HCl; structure is ferrite.

b) 0.075% C. water-quenched from 1850°F and tempered at 1000°F,etched in

picric-HCl; ferrite(light area).
c) 0.65% C, water-quenched from 1850°F and tempered at 1000°F,etched in picric-
HCl; undissovled carbides in tempered-martensite matrix
 Fig-11.a: 18% Cr steel Fig-11.b: 18%+ 8% Ni steel

Addition of Ni to Cr Steel will modify the diagram and with varying carbon content
austenite formed at elevated temperature is stable and reluctant to transform and
trends to retained after annealing
 a) After annealing
b) After cold working

Fig-12 microstructure of a 18% Cr with 8%

Ni steel
 TYPE OF STAINLESS STEEL
 Martensitic Stainless Steels

 Ferritic Stainless Steels

 Austenitic Stainless Steels

 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steels

Martensitic Stainless Steels

 It contents 11.5 -18% Cr , magnetic, cold worked as well as hot worked easily,
machined satisfactorily, have good toughness and corrosion resistance

 Heat treatment is same as plain carbon or low alloy steels

 Strength and hardness depend on carbon content

 Different types of Martensitic Stainless steel and their uses are mentioned in Fig- 13
 Fig- 13 The Martensitic Stainless Steels

403 410
Turbine-quality Base alloy for this
grade; similar to 410; group; general
used for steam purpose, heat-
turbine blading and treatable type; used
other highly stressed for machine parts,
parts pump shafts.

414 416 420 400C

Higher Ni content Free- machining High-carbon Highest carbon
increases modification of 410 modification of 410; content ( 0.95% to
hardenability and (contains S); for has wear resistance; 1.20%) of the
corrosion resistance; heavy cuts. used for cutlery, stainless steels, used
used for springs, surgical for balls, bearings,
tempered rolls, instruments, valves. races
machine parts.

431 416Se 440A 440B

Slightly lower carbon

Higher Cr content Free- machining Slightly lower carbon
content than 440B
improves corrosion modification of 410 content than 440C
for greater toughness;
resistance; has high (contains Se); for improves toughness;
can have higher
mechanical light cuts and where used for fine cutlery
hardness than420
properties; used for hot working or cold valve parts.
good corrosion
aircraft fittings, heading is involved
resistance; used for
heater bars, paper
cutlery, valve parts
machinery parts
bolts.
 FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

 Cr contain in this steel is approx 14to 27%

 405,430 and 446 series available under this

 Low carbon but higher percentage than in Martensitic grades

 Can’t be hardened by heat treatment but can be done by cold

working.

 They are superior to martensitic stainless steel in corrosion

resistance and machinability

 Uses: vessels for chemical and food industries, architectural

and automotive trim
 Fig-14: THE FERRITIC STAINLESS STEELS

430F 430 430Se

Free- machining Basic alloy for this Free- machining

modification of 430 ( group- a non modification of
contains S); for hardening Cr type; 430 (contains Se);
heavy cuts and used for decorative for light cuts and
screw- machined trim, nitric acid where hot-working
parts tanks, annealing or cold heading
baskets. may be involved.

450 442 446

Addition of Al High Cr content for High Cr content than
improves increased corrosion 442 increases
weldability of this and scaling corrosion and scaling
otherwise resistance; used for resistance at high
martensitic alloy, furnace parts, temperature; used
making it non- nozzles, especially for
hardenable; used combustion intermittant service,
where air-hardening chambers. often in sulfur-
types(410 or 403) bearing atmosphere.
are objectionable.
 AUSTENITIC STAINLESS STEELS
 These are Cr-Ni(3XX) and Cr- Ni-Mn(2XX) stainless steels.

 Austenitic, non-magnetic and can’t be harden but by heat treatment

but can be hot or cold worked .

 Both Ni and Cr should be at least 23%

 Extremely shock resistant and difficult to machine, high temperature

strength and resistance to scaling of stainless steels

 Corrosion resistance is better than others

 302, basic alloy of the austenitic stainless steel.

 alloying elements are used for improvement in their properties.

 Some of the other austenitic stainless steel are shown in Fig-15

with their uses
 202 302 302B

General-purpose low- nickel Base alloy for this group; used for trim, More resistant to scaling than 302
equivalent of 302; Ni partially food handling equipment, aircraft because of Si content; used for
replaced by Mn cowling, antennas, springs, furnace parts, still liners, heating
architectural products, cookware elements.

304L 304 347 308 305

Extra low-carbon
Modification of 304
for further restriction
carbide precipitation
during welding.
303
Free machining
modification (contains
S ) of 302; for heavy
cuts; used for screw
machine products,
shafts, valves.
Low –carbon modification of 302 Similar to 321 except Higher alloy (Ni and Cr) High Ni content to
for restriction of carbide Cb or Ta is added to content increases lower work-
precipitation during welding; used stabilize for weld corrosion and heat hardening rate;
for chemical and food processing application. resistance; principally used for spin
equipment, recording wire. used for welding filler forming and
metals to compensate for severe drawing
welding filler metals to operations.
compensate for alloy
321 348 loss in welding.
Ti content prevents Cr carbide Similar to 347
precipitation during welding; except for a 309
for severe corrosive conditions maximum limit on 309S
and service from 800 to 1600 Ta: used for Similar to 308 except alloy
Low-carbon
F: used for aircraft exhaust nuclear energy content(Ni and Cr) is higher; has
modification of 309
manifolds, boiler shells, application. excellent corrosion and scaling
for improved
process equipment. resistance; used in aircraft
weldability.
heaters, heat treating equipment,
furnace parts,

303Se
309 309 310S
Free machining modification
Similar to 308 except alloy Similar to 308 except alloy Low-carbon
(contain Se) of 302; for light cuts
content(Ni and Cr) is higher; has content(Ni and Cr) is higher; has modification of
and where hot working or cold
excellent corrosion and scaling excellent corrosion and scaling 310 for improved
heading may be involved.
resistance; used in aircraft resistance; used in aircraft heaters, weldability.
heaters, heat treating equipment, heat treating equipment, furnace
furnace parts, parts,

301 201 317 316 316L

Work-hardening rate increased by Low Ni equivalent Higher Mo Content Higher corrosion resistance than Low-carbon
lower Cr and Ni Content; used for of 301: Ni partially than 316 improves 302 or 304 because of Mo content; modification of 316
high strength, ductility applications replaced by Mn; resistance to has high creep resistance; used for for improved welded
such as rail road cars, trailer bodies, has high work corrosion and chemical, pulp handling, construction.
aircraft structural members. hardening rate. creep. photographic, and food equipment
 PRECIPITATION HARDENING STAINLESS
STEELS
 It was developed during world war II . 17-7PH was the first grade
made in 1948
 The composition of some representative Precipitation Hardening
Stainless Steels is given as follow:
 These steels are usually solution annealed

 After forming they are aged to attain the increases in strength and
hardness.

 Low in Ni content thus reducing austenite

 The microstructure of 17-4PH alloy(Precipitation Hardening

Stainless Steels) has been show in subsequent fig- 16

 the mechanical properties of some of these the shown in Fig-17

a) 17-4PH alloy solution treated at 1900 °F and air cooled, b) Same alloy and treatment as left fig. except aged at
then aged 4 h at 925 °F and air cooled, structure is 1100°F, the tempered martensite is more refined and has
tempered martensite greater ductility than the structure shown in left fig

Fig-16: 17-4PH ALLOY

 MARAGING STEELS

 A iron base alloy having yield strength up to 300000 psi with

excellent fracture toughness
 Low carbon contain, 18 to 25 % Ni with other hardening elements
 Maraging = martensitic + aging
 Ultra high strength on being aged in annealed, or martensitic,
condition.
 martensitic formed is soft and tough rather than the hard, brittle
martensite of conventional low- alloy steels
 The composition of various Ni-maraging steels is as follow;
 AUSFORMING
 The deformation of unstable austenite of moderately alloyed steels
at a temperature below A1 line .
 It exists between pearlite and bainite reaction.
 Non martensitic transformation products. The final microstructure
consists of fine martensitic plates
 The technique is applicable to many steels llike:AISI4340 and H11
hot work tool steel
 HSLA

Microalloyed steel

Minute quantity of niobium, titanium, vanadium, and/or molybdenum

Less than 0.2% Carbon

Strength 415-700MPa, Elongation 15-25%

Their production can entail

alloying with small amount of strong carbide and nitrides forming

element
controlled rolling
Controlled cooling
inclusion shape control
Fe-C Phase Diagram

Stable

Metastable
 White CI
Malleabilize
Grey CI
CAST IRONS Stress concentration
Ductile CI at flake tips avoided

Good castability  C > 2.4% Malleable CI

Alloy CI
White Cast Iron

 All C as Fe3C (Cementite)

 Microstructure  Pearlite + Ledeburite + Cementite
Grey Cast Iron  [2.4% (for good castability), 3.8 (for OK mechanical propeties)]

< 1.25%  Inhibits graphitization

< 0.1%  retards graphitization;  size of Graphite flakes

 Fe-C-Si + (Mn, P, S)
 Invariant lines become invariant regions in phase diagram
 Si  (1.2, 3.5)  C as Graphite flakes in microstructure (Ferrite matrix)
 volume during solidification  better castability


L    ( Fe3C )    Fe3C  ( Fe3C ) Si   Ceutectoid
      
Ledeburite Pearlite

 Si decreases Eutectivity
 Si promotes graphitization  ~ effect as  cooling rate
 Solidification over a range of temperatures permits the nucleation and growth of Graphite
flakes
 Change in interfacial energy between /L & Graphite/L brought about by Si
 Growth of Graphite along ‘a’ axis
Ductile/Spheroidal Cast Iron
 Graphite nodules instead of flakes (in 2D section)
 Mg, Ce, Ca (or other spheroidizing) elements are added
 The elements added to promote spheroidization react with the solute in
the liquid to form heterogenous nucleation sites
 The alloying elements are injected into mould before pouring (George-
Fischer container)
 It is thought that by the modification of the interfacial energy the ‘c’ and
‘a’ growth direction are made comparable leading to spheroidal graphite
morphology
 The graphite phase usually nucleates in the liquid pocket created by the
proeutectic 
 Ductile Iron/Nodular Iron
Ferrite Graphite nodules

10 m
With Ferritic Matrix With (Ferrite + Pearlite) Matrix

With Pearlitic matrix

 Ductile Iron/Nodular Iron

Ferrite (White)
Graphite (black)

Bull’s Eye

Ferrite

5 m

Pearlite (grey)
 Malleable Cast Iron

Malleabilize
White Cast Iron  Malleable Cast Iron
To Increase Ductility

 48 hrs
Fe3C (WCI)  
2 stage heat treatment
 Graphite Temper Nodules (Malleable Iron)
 • (940-960)C (Above eutectoid temperature)
Stage I • Competed when all Cementite  Graphite

A: Low T structure (Ferrite + Pearlite + Martensite)  ( + Cementite)

B: Graphite nucleation at /Cementite interface

(rate of nucleation increased by C, Si)
(Si  solubility of C in    driving force
for growth of Graphite)

C: Cementite dissolves  C joining growing Graphite plates

Spacing between Cementite and Graphite 

 spacing   time (obtained by faster cooling of liquid)
Time for
Addition of Alloying elements
Graphitization
 which increase the nucleation rate of Graphite temper nodules
in Stage I
Si   t 
 • (720-730)C (Below eutectoid temperature)
Stage II • After complete graphitization in Stage I  Further Graphitization

 Slow cool to the lower temperature such that  does not form Cementite
 C diffuses through  to Graphite temper nodules
(called Ferritizing Anneal)
 Full Anneal in Ferrite + Graphite two phase region
 Partial Anneal (Insufficient time in Stage II Graphitization)
  Ferrite is partial and the remaining  transforms to Pearlite
   Pearlite + Ferrite + Graphite
 If quench after Stage I    Martensite (+ Retained Austenite(RA))
(Graphite temper nodules are present in a matrix of Martensite and RA)
 Malleable Iron
Pearlitic Matrix Ferrite (White)

Graphite (black)

Pearlite (grey)

Partially Malleabilized Iron Ferritic Matrix

 Incomplete Ferritizing Anneal

Ferrite (White)

Graphite (black)

10 m
Fully Malleabilized Iron
 Complete Ferritizing Anneal
 Alloy Cast Irons
 Cr, Mn, Si, Ni, Al
  the range of microstructures
 Beneficial effect on many properties
  high temperature oxidation resistance
  corrosion resistance in acidic environments
  wear/abaration resistance

Graphite free

Alloy Cast Irons

Graphite bearing
Cr addition (12- 35 wt %)
 Excellent resistance to oxidation at high temperatures
 High Cr Cast Irons are of 3 types:
 12-28 % Cr  matrix of Martensite + dispersed carbide
 29-34 % Cr  matrix of Ferrite + dispersion of alloy carbides
[(Cr,Fe)23C6, (Cr,Fe)7C3]
 15-30 % Cr + 10-15 % Ni  stable  + carbides [(Cr,Fe)23C6, (Cr,Fe)7C3]
Ni stabilizes Austenite structure
High Cr

29.3% Cr, 2.95% C

 Ni:
 Stabilizes Austenitic structure
  Graphitization (suppresses the formation of carbides)
 (Cr counteracts this tendency of Ni for graphitization)
  Carbon content in Eutectic
 Moves nose of TTT diagram to higher times  easy formation of
Martensite
 Carbide formation in presence of Cr increases the hardness of the eutectic
structure  Ni Hard Cast Irons (4%Ni, 2-8% Cr, 2.8% C)

Ni-Hard Good abrasion resistance

Needles of Martensite

Transformation sequence
 Crystallization of primary 
 Eutectic liquid   + alloy carbide
4%Ni, 2-8% Cr, 2.8% C    Martensite
 Ni Resist Iron: 15-30% Ni + small amount of Cr:
 Austenitic Dendrites + Graphite plates/flakes + interdendritic carbides
due to presence of Cr
 Resistant to oxidation (used in chemical processing plants, sea water, oil
handling operations…)

Graphite plates Dendrites of 

Ni-resist
 Silal Iron (trade name): Alloy CI with 5% Si
 Si allows solidification to occur over larger temperature range 
promotes graphitization
 Forms surface film of iron silicate  resistant to acid corrosion

CI with 5 % Si