PHYSICS CHAPTER 9

CHAPTER 9:
Quantization of light
(4 Hours)

1
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physics

9.1 Planck’s quantum theory (1 hour)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Explain briefly Planck’s quantum theory and classical
theory of energy.
 Write and use Einstein’s formulae for photon energy,
hc
E  hf 


2
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9

9.1 Planck’s quantum theory

9.1.1 Classical theory of black body radiation
 Black body is defined as an ideal system that absorbs all the
radiation incident on it.
it The electromagnetic (EM) radiation
emitted by the black body is called black body radiation.
radiation
 From the black body experiment, the distribution of energy in
black body, E depends only on the temperature, T.

E  k BT (9.1)

where k B : Boltzmann's constant

T : temperature in kelvin
 If the temperature increases thus the energy of the black body
increases and vice versa.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 The spectrum of EM radiation emitted by the black body
(experimental result) is shown in Figure 9.1.

Experimental
result

Rayleigh -Jeans
theory Classical
physics
Wien’s theory

Figure 9.1
 From the curve, Wien’s theory was accurate at short
wavelengths but deviated at longer wavelengths whereas the
reverse was true for the Rayleigh-Jeans theory. 4
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 The Rayleigh-Jeans and Wien’s theories failed to fit the
experimental curve because this two theories based on
classical ideas which are
 Energy of the EM radiation is not depend on its frequency
or wavelength.
wavelength
 Energy of the EM radiation is continuously.
continuously

9.1.2 Planck’s quantum theory

 In 1900, Max Planck proposed his theory that is fit with the
experimental curve in Figure 9.1 at all wavelengths known as
Planck’s quantum theory.
 The assumptions made by Planck in his theory are :
 The EM radiation emitted by the black body is in discrete
(separate) packets of energy.
energy Each packet is called a
quantum of energy.
energy This means the energy of EM radiation
is quantised.
quantised
 The energy size of the radiation depends on its frequency.
frequency
5
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 According to this assumptions, the quantum of the energy E
for radiation of frequency f is given by

E  hf (9.2)
34
where h : Planck's constant  6.63  10 Js
 Since the speed of EM radiation in a vacuum is
c  f
then eq. (9.2) can be written as
hc
E (9.3)

 From eq. (9.3), the quantum of the energy E for radiation is
inversely proportional to its wavelength.
wavelength

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 It is convenient to express many quantum energies in electron-
volts.
 The electron-volt (eV) is a unit of energy that can be defined
as the kinetic energy gained by an electron in being
accelerated by a potential difference (voltage) of 1 volt.
volt
Unit conversion:
1 eV  1.60  10 19 J
 In 1905, Albert Einstein extended Planck’s idea by proposing
that electromagnetic radiation is also quantised. It consists of
particle like packets (bundles) of energy called photons of
electromagnetic radiation.
Note:
For EM radiation of n packets, the energy En is given by

En  nhf (9.4)

where n : real number  1,2,3,...

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
9.1.3 Photon
 Photon is defined as a particle with zero mass consisting of
a quantum of electromagnetic radiation where its energy is
concentrated.
concentrated
 A photon may also be regarded as a unit of energy equal to
hf.
 Photons travel at the speed of light in a vacuum. They are
required to explain the photoelectric effect and other
phenomena that require light to have particle property.
property
 Table 9.1 shows the differences between the photon and
electromagnetic wave.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
EM Wave Photon
 Energy of the EM wave  Energy of a photon is
depends on the intensity proportional to the
of the wave. Intensity of frequency of the EM
the wave I is proportional wave where
to the squared of its E f
amplitude A2 where
I  A2
 Its energy is continuously  Its energy is discrete as
and spread out through shown in Figure 9.2b.
the medium as shown in
Figure 9.2a.

Photon
Figure 9.2a Figure 9.2b
Table 9.1 9
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Example 1 :
A photon of the green light has a wavelength of 740 nm. Calculate
a. the photon’s frequency,
b. the photon’s energy in joule and electron-volt.
(Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00108 m s1 and
Planck’s constant, h =6.631034 J s)
9
Solution :   740  10 m
a. The frequency of the photon is given by
c  f 
3.00  108  740  10 9 f 
f  4.05  1014 Hz
b. By applying the Planck’s quantum theory, thus the photon’s
energy in joule is E  hf  
E  6.63  10 34 4.05  1014 
E  2.69  10 19 J
and its energy in electron-volt is
2.69  10 19
E E  1.66 eV
1.60  10 19 10
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Example 2 :
For a gamma radiation of wavelength 4.621012 m propagates in
the air, calculate the energy of a photon for gamma radiation in
electron-volt.
(Given the speed of light in the vacuum, c =3.00108 m s1 and
Planck’s constant, h =6.631034 J s)
12
Solution :   4.62  10 m
By applying the Planck’s quantum theory, thus the energy of a
photon in electron-volt is

E
hc
E
6.63  10 3.00  10 
34 8

 4.62  10 12
E  4.31  10 14 J
4.31  10 14

1.60  10 19
E  2.69  105 eV
11
 PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physics

9.2 The photoelectric effect (3 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 Explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
 Define threshold frequency, work function and stopping
potential.
 Describe and sketch diagram of the photoelectric effect
experimental set-up.
 Explain by using graph and equations the observations
of photoelectric effect experiment in terms of the
dependence of :
 kinetic energy of photoelectron on the frequency of
light;
1 2
mvmax  eVs  hf  hf 0
2
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 PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Learning Outcome:
www.kmph.matrik.edu.my/physics

9.2 The photoelectric effect (3 hours)

At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 photoelectric current on intensity of incident light;
 work function and threshold frequency on the types
of metal surface.

W0  hf 0
 Explain the failure of wave theory to justify the
photoelectric effect.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
9.2 The photoelectric effect
 is defined as the emission of electron from the surface
of a metal when the EM radiation (light) of higher
frequency strikes its surface.
surface
 Figure 9.3 shows the emission of the electron from the surface of
the metal after shining by the light.

EM - photoelectron
radiation

- - - - - - - - - -
Metal
Free electrons
Figure 9.3
 Photoelectron is defined as an electron emitted from the
surface of the metal when the EM radiation (light) strikes its
surface.
surface 14
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
9.2.1 Photoelectric experiment
 The photoelectric effect can be studied through the experiment
made by Franck Hertz in 1887.
 Figure 9.4a shows a schematic diagram of an experimental
arrangement for studying the photoelectric effect.
EM radiation (light)
cathode
anode
- -
- glass
vacuum G
photoelectron
V
power supply
rheostat

Figure 9.4a
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 The set-up apparatus as follows:
 Two conducting electrodes, the anode (positive electric
potential) and the cathode (negative electric potential) are
encased in an evacuated tube (vacuum).
 The monochromatic light of known frequency and intensity is
incident on the cathode.
Explanation of the experiment
 When a monochromatic light of suitable frequency (or
wavelength) shines on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted.
 These photoelectrons are attracted to the anode and give rise to

the photoelectric current or photocurrent I which is measured by

the galvanometer.
 When the positive voltage (potential difference) across the
cathode and anode is increased, more photoelectrons reach the
anode , thus the photoelectric current increases.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 As positive voltage becomes sufficiently large, the photoelectric
current reaches a maximum constant value Im, called
saturation current.
current
 Saturation current is defined as the maximum constant
value of photocurrent when all the photoelectrons have
reached the anode.
anode
 If the positive voltage is gradually decreased, the photoelectric
current I also decreases slowly. Even at zero voltage there are
still some photoelectrons with sufficient energy reach the anode
and the photoelectric current flows is I0.
 Finally, when the voltage is made negative by reversing the
power supply terminal as shown in Figure 9.4b, the
photoelectric current decreases even further to very low values
since most photoelectrons are repelled by anode which is
now negative electric potential.

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
EM radiation (light)
cathode
anode
- -
- glass
vacuum G
photoelectron
V
power supply
rheostat

Figure 9.4b: reversing power supply terminal

 As the potential of the anode becomes more negative, less
photoelectrons reach the anode thus the photoelectric current
drops until its value equals zero which the electric potential at
this moment is called stopping potential (voltage) Vs.
 Stopping potential is defined as the minimum value of
negative voltage when there are no photoelectrons
reaching the anode.
anode 18
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 The potential energy U due to this retarding voltage Vs now
equals the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron.
U  K max
1 2
eVs  mvmax (9.5)
2
where m : mass of the electron
 The variation of photoelectric current I as a function of the
voltage V can be shown through the graph in Figure 9.4c.
Photoelectric current, I
Im
I0

Stimulation 9.1 0 Voltage ,V

 Vs
Figure 9.4c After Before reversing the terminal 19
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
9.2.2 Einstein’s theory of photoelectric effect
 A photon is a ‘packet’ of electromagnetic radiation with
particle-like characteristic and carries the energy E given by
E  hf
and this energy is not spread out through the medium.
medium
Work function W0 of a metal
 Is defined as the minimum energy of EM radiation required
to emit an electron from the surface of the metal.
metal
 It depends on the metal used.
used
 Its formulae is W0  E min and E min  hf 0

W0  hf 0 (9.6)

where f0 is called threshold frequency and is defined as the

minimum frequency of EM radiation required to emit an
electron from the surface of the metal.
metal 20
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 Since c=f then the eq. (9.6) can be written as
hc
W0  (9.7)
0
where 0 is called threshold wavelength and is defined as the
maximum wavelength of EM radiation required to emit an
electron from the surface of the metal.
metal
 Table 9.2 shows the work functions of several elements.
Element Work function (eV)
Aluminum 4.3
Sodium 2.3
Copper 4.7
Gold 5.1
Silver 4.3
Table 9.2 21
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
 In the photoelectric effect, Einstein summarizes that some of the

energy E imparted by a photon is actually used to release an

electron from the surface of a metal (i.e. to overcome the
binding force) and that the rest appears as the maximum
kinetic energy of the emitted electron (photoelectron).
photoelectron It is
given by
1
E  K max  W0 where E  hf and K max  mvmax 2
2
1 2
hf  mvmax  W0 (9.8)
2
where eq. (9.8) is known as Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
 Since Kmax=eVs then the eq. (9.8) can be written as

hf  eVs  W0 (9.9)

where Vs : stopping voltage

e : magnitude for charge of electron 22
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Note:
 1st case: hf  W0 OR f  f 0
vmax K max
hf -
W0 Electron is emitted with maximum
Figure 9.5a Metal - kinetic energy.
energy
 2nd case: hf  W0 OR f  f 0

hf K max  0
- v0
W0 Electron is emitted but maximum
Figure 9.5b Metal - kinetic energy is zero.
zero
 3rd case: hf  W OR f  f
0 0
hf
No electron is emitted. W0
Figure 9.5c Metal -
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Example 3 :
Cadmium has a work function of 4.22 eV. Calculate
a. its threshold frequency,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectrons when the cadmium is
shined by UV radiation of wavelength 275 nm,
c. the stopping potential.
(Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C)

Solution : W0  4.22 1.60  10
19

 6.75  10 19 J
a. By using the equation of the work function, thus
W0  hf 0
6.75  10 19
 6.63  10  f
34
0

f 0  1.02  1015 Hz

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9

Solution : W0  4.22 1.60  10 19
9
  6.75 10 19
J
b. Given   275  10 m
By applying the Einstein’s photoelectric equation, thus
E  K max  W0
hc 1 2
 mvmax  W0
 2
 
6.63  1034 3.00  108 1

  9 .11  10 31
v  2
 6.75  10 19
max
275  109 2
vmax  3.26  105 m s 1
c. The stopping potential is given by
1 2 1 2
K max  mvmax eVs  mvmax
2 2
  1

1.60  10 Vs  9.11  10 31 3.26  105
19
2
 
2

Vs  0.303 V 25
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Example 4 :
A beam of white light containing frequencies between 4.00 1014 Hz
and 7.90 1014 Hz is incident on a sodium surface, which has a
work function of 2.28 eV.
a. Calculate the threshold frequency of the sodium surface.
b. What is the range of frequencies in this beam of light for which
electrons are ejected from the sodium surface?
c. Determine the highest maximum kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons that are ejected from this surface.
(Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C)

26
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9

Solution : W0  2.28 1.60  10 19   3.65 10 19
J
a. The threshold frequency is
W0  hf 0

3.65  10 19  6.63  10 34 f 0 
f 0  5.51 1014 Hz
b. The range of the frequencies that eject electrons is
5.51 1014 Hz and 7.90 1014 Hz
c. For the highest Kmax, take f  7.90  1014 Hz
By applying the Einstein’s photoelectric equation, thus
E  K max  W0
1 2
hf  mvmax  W0
2
6.63 10 7.90 10   K
34 14
max  3.65  10 19
K max  1.59  10 19 J 27
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Exercise 9.1 :
Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C
1. The energy of a photon from an electromagnetic wave is 2.25
eV
a. Calculate its wavelength.
b. If this electromagnetic wave shines on a metal, electrons
are emitted with a maximum kinetic energy of 1.10 eV.
Calculate the work function of this metal in joules.
ANS. : 553 nm; 1.841019 J
2. In a photoelectric effect experiment it is observed that no current
flows when the wavelength of EM radiation is greater than 570
nm. Calculate
a. the work function of this material in electron-volts.
b. the stopping voltage required if light of wavelength 400
nm is used.
(Physics for scientists & engineers, 3rd edition, Giancoli, Q15,
p.974)
ANS. : 2.18 eV; 0.92 V
28
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Exercise 9.1 :
3. In an experiment on the photoelectric effect, the following data
were collected.
Wavelength of EM Stopping potential,
radiation,  (nm) Vs (V)
350 1.70
450 0.900
a. Calculate the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons
when the wavelength of the incident radiation is 350
nm.
b. Determine the value of the Planck constant from the
above data.
ANS. : 7.73105 m s1; 6.721034 J s

29
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
9.2.3 Graph of photoelectric experiment
Variation of photoelectric current I with voltage V
 for the radiation of different intensities but its frequency is
fixed.
fixed I
2I m Intensity 2x

Im Intensity 1x

0 V
 Vs
Figure 9.6a
Reason:
From the experiment, the photoelectric current is directly
proportional to the intensity of the radiation as shown in
Figure 9.6b. 30
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
I
2I m
Im

0 Light intensity
1 2
Figure 9.6b
 for the radiation of different frequencies but its intensity is
fixed.
fixed I
Im

f2 > f1
f2
f1
V
 Vs2  Vs1 0
Figure 9.7a 31
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Reason:
From the Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
Stopping voltage,Vs h W0
hf  eVs  W0 Vs    f 
e e
Vs2 y  m x c
Vs1
0 frequency, f
f 0 f1 f 2
W0 If Vs=0, hf  e(0)  W0

e W0  hf f 0

Figure 9.7b

32
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
 For the different metals of cathode but the intensity and
frequency of the radiation are fixed.
fixed
I
Im

W02 > W01

W01
Figure 9.8a
W02
 Vs1  Vs2 0 V
Reason: From the Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
Vs  1  hf 
hf hf  eVs  W0 Vs    W0   
e  e  e 
Vs1
Vs2 y m x  c
Energy of a photon
W0 in EM radiation
0 W01 W02 hf  E 33
Figure 9.8b
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Variation of stopping voltage Vs with frequency f of the radiation
 for different metals of cathode but the intensity is fixed.
fixed
Vs
W01 W02 W03

W03 >W02 > W01

Figure 9.9

0 f
f 01 f 02 f 03

W0  f 0 Threshold (cut-off)
Reason: Since W0=hf0 then
frequency
h W
hf  eVs  W0 Vs    f  0 If Vs=0, hf  e(0)  W0
e e W0  hf f0
y  m x c
34
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
9.2.4 Failure of wave theory of light
 Table 9.3 shows the classical predictions (wave theory),
photoelectric experimental observation and modern theory
explanation about photoelectric experiment.
Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation
Emission of Emission of When the light frequency is
photoelectrons occur photoelectrons occur greater than threshold
for all frequencies of only when frequency frequency, a higher rate of
light. Energy of light is of the light exceeds photons striking the metal
independent of the certain frequency surface results in a higher
frequency. which value is rate of photoelectrons
characteristic of the emitted. If it is less than
material being threshold frequency no
illuminated. photoelectrons are emitted.
Hence the emission of
photoelectrons depend on
the light frequency 35
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation

The higher the Very low intensity but The intensity of light is the
intensity, the greater high frequency number of photons
the energy imparted to radiation could emit radiated per unit time on a
the metal surface for photoelectrons. The unit surface area.
area
emission of maximum kinetic Based on the Einstein’s
photoelectrons. When energy of photoelectric equation:
the intensity is low, the photoelectrons is K max  hf  W0
energy of the radiation independent of light The maximum kinetic
is too small for intensity. energy of photoelectron
emission of electrons. depends only on the light
frequency and the work
function.
function If the light
intensity is doubled, the
number of electrons emitted
also doubled but the
maximum kinetic energy
remains unchanged. 36
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation

Light energy is spread Photoelectrons are The transfer of photon’s

over the wavefront, the emitted from the energy to an electron is
amount of energy surface of the metal instantaneous as its energy
incident on any one almost is absorbed in its entirely,
electron is small. An instantaneously much like a particle to
electron must gather after the surface is particle collision. The
sufficient energy before illuminated, even at emission of photoelectron
emission, hence there very low light is immediate and no time
is time interval intensities. interval between
between absorption of absorption of light energy
light energy and and emission.
emission. Time interval
increases if the light
intensity is low.

37
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Classical predictions Experimental Modern theory
observation

Energy of light Energy of light According to Planck’s

depends only on depends on quantum theory which is
amplitude ( or frequency. E=hf
intensity)
intensity and not on
frequency. Energy of light depends on
its frequency.

Note: Table 9.3

 Experimental observations deviate from classical predictions based on
wave theory of light.
light Hence the classical physics cannot explain the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
 The modern theory based on Einstein’s photon theory of light can
explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
 It is because Einstein postulated that light is quantized and light is
emitted, transmitted and reabsorbed as photons.
photons

38
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Example 5 :
a. Why does the existence of a threshold frequency in the
photoelectric effect favor a particle theory for light over a wave
theory?
b. In the photoelectric effect, explains why the stopping potential
depends on the frequency of light but not on the intensity.
Solution :
a. Wave theory predicts that the photoelectric effect should occur at
any frequency, provided the light intensity is high enough.
However, as seen in the photoelectric experiments, the light must
have a sufficiently high frequency (greater than the threshold
frequency) for the effect to occur.
b. The stopping voltage measures the kinetic energy of the most
energetic photoelectrons. Each of them has gotten its energy
from a single photon. According to Planck’s quantum theory , the
photon energy depends on the frequency of the light. The
intensity controls only the number of photons reaching a unit area
in a unit time. 39
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Example 6 :
In a photoelectric experiments, a graph of the light frequency f is
plotted against the maximum kinetic energy Kmax of the photoelectron
as shown in Figure 9.10.
f  1014 Hz

4.83

K max (eV)
0
Figure 9.10
Based on the graph, for the light of frequency 7.141014 Hz, calculate
a. the threshold wavelength,
b. the maximum speed of the photoelectron.
(Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C)
40
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Solution : f  7.14  1014 Hz
a. By rearranging Einstein’s photoelectric equation,
f  1014 Hz 1 W0
hf  K max  W0 f    K max 
h h
1
4.83 f    K max  f 0
h
y m x  c
K max (eV)
0
14
f
From the graph, 0  4 . 83  10 Hz
Therefore the threshold wavelength is given by
c
0 
f0
3.00  108

4.83  1014
0  6.21  10 7 m 41
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Solution : f  7.14  1014 Hz
b. By using the Einstein’s photoelectric equation, thus
1 2
hf  mvmax  W0
2
1 2
hf  mvmax  hf 0
2
1
mvmax  h f  f 0 
2

2
1
2
  2

9.11  10 31 vmax  6.63  10 34 7.14  1014  4.83  1014 
vmax  5.80  105 m s 1

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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Exercise 9.2 :
Given c =3.00108 m s1, h =6.631034 J s, me=9.111031 kg and
e=1.601019 C
1. A photocell with cathode and anode made of the same metal
connected in a circuit as shown in the Figure 9.11a.
Monochromatic light of wavelength 365 nm shines on the
cathode and the photocurrent I is measured for various
values of voltage V across the cathode and anode. The result
is shown in Figure 9.11b.
365 nm I (nA)

5
G

1 0 V (V)
Figure 9.11a Figure 9.11b 43
PHYSICS CHAPTER 9
Exercise 9.2 :
1. a. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron.
b. Deduce the work function of the cathode.
c. If the experiment is repeated with monochromatic light of
wavelength 313 nm, determine the new intercept with the
V-axis for the new graph.
ANS. : 1.601019 J, 3.851019 J; 1.57 V
2. When EM radiation falls on a metal surface, electrons may be
emitted. This is photoelectric effect.
a. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation, explaining the
meaning of each term.
b. Explain why for a particular metal, electrons are emitted
only when the frequency of the incident radiation is greater
than a certain value?
c. Explain why the maximum speed of the emitted electrons
is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation?
(Advanced Level Physics, 7th edition, Nelkon&Parker, Q6, p.835)
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PHYSICS CHAPTER 9

Next Chapter…
CHAPTER 10 :
Wave properties of particle

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