Chapter 1

- Basics of Semiconductors -

FROM: Oxford University Publishing

Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C. Smith
 1.7. Intrinsic Semiconductors
Basic Concepts
• Semiconductor – a material whose conductivity lies
between that of conductors (copper) and insulators (glass).
• Single-element – such as germanium and silicon.
• Compound – such as gallium-arsenide, (III-V).

• Silicon atom
• Each pair of shared e-
forms a covalent bond
• The atoms form a
crystal/lattice structure
• Silicon at low temp: No electrons available for conduction
Conductivity is zero (Insulator)
3.1: Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Silicon at room temp: Some covalent bonds break, freeing an
electron and creating hole, due to thermal energy Conductivity
– is greater than zero
• silicon at low temps: • silicon at room temp:
• all covalent bonds are intact • sufficient thermal energy exists
• no electrons are available for to break some covalent bonds,
conduction freeing an electron and creating
• conducitivity is zero hole
• a free electron may wander from
its parent atom
the process of freeing electrons, creating holes,
• a hole will attract neighboring
and filling them facilitates current flow
electrons
 1.7. Intrinsic Semiconductors
• Intrinsic semiconductor = without impurities (e.g. pure silicon).
• BUT Silicon is not sufficiently conductive at room temperature!
Solution is Doping – the intentional introduction of impurities into
a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor for the purpose changing carrier
(charges) concentrations.

p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

• Silicon is doped with
valence 3 element called
acceptor (like Boron).
• Increases the concentration
of holes (p).
• Silicon is doped with
valence 5 element called
donor (Like phosophorus).
• Increase the concentration
of free electrons (n).
 1.8. Doped Semiconductors
p-type semiconductor n-type semiconductor

The key here is that number of free electrons (aka. conductivity) is

dependent on doping concentration, not temperature…
 1.9. Current flow in
Semiconductors
There are two types of current flow in semiconductors:

Drift Current: Applied electric field (E) Diffusion current: Flow of charges due
accelerates holes and electrons. The two to their non-uniform distribution.
currents sum to produce drift current in (Charge flow from area of high
the direction of E. concentration to low concentration)

diffusion
inject occurs
holes

concentration
profile arises
 Current density
1.9.1. Drift Current = I/Area [A/m2]
Two important concepts:

Ohm's Law
1 field
(eq3.14) J   E Elect.
q(p=p V/Dist.
 nn )[V/m]
• Conductivity (s.) = how 1
easy charges can travel(eq3.16)   q(p p  nn ) q(p  n
across a material. p
Mobility
1
s = 1/ r (eq3.15) J  E / 
q(p p  nn )
• Resistivity (r.) = How (eq3.17)   1
much a material opposes q(p p  nn )
to the flow of charges.
 1.10.1. Physical Structure of a p-n junction

• pn junction structure
• p-type semiconductor
• n-type semiconductor
• metal contact for connection
 Step #1: Bound charges are attracted (from environment) by free
electrons and holes in the p-type and n-type semiconductors,
respectively. They remain weakly “bound” to these majority carriers;
however, they do not recombine.

negative bound positive bound

charges charges

p-type n-type

The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

 Step #2: Diffusion begins. Those free electrons and holes
which are closest to the junction will recombine and,
essentially, eliminate one another.

p-type n-type

The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

 Step #3: The depletion region begins to form – as diffusion
occurs and free electrons recombine with holes.

The depletion region is filled with “uncovered” bound charges – who

have lost the majority carriers to which they were linked.

p-type n-type

The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

 Step #4: The “uncovered” bound charges affect a voltage
differential across the depletion region. The magnitude of this
barrier voltage (V0) differential grows, as diffusion continues.

No voltage differential exists across regions of the pn-junction

outside of the depletion region because of the neutralizing effect of
positive and negative bound charges.
voltage potential

barrier voltage
(Vo)

location (x)
Built-in (Barrier) voltage (V0) = 0.6 and 0.9V for silicon
 1.11.1. Qualitative Description of Junction
Operation
• Figure shows pn-junction
under three conditions:
• (a) open-circuit – where
a barrier voltage V0
exists.
• (b) reverse bias – where
a dc voltage VR is
applied.
The pn junction in: (a)
• (c) forward bias – where
equilibrium; (b) reverse bias; (c)
a dc voltage VF is
applied. forward bias.
1) no voltage 1) negative voltage 1) positive voltage
applied applied applied
2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential 2) voltage differential
across depletion zone across depletion zone across depletion zone
is V0 is V0 + VR is V0 - VF
• Figure to right shows pn-junction under three conditions:
3) ID = I•S 3) ID < IS 3) ID > IS
(a) open-circuit – where a barrier voltage V0 exists.
• (b) reverse bias – where a dc voltage VR is applied.
• (c) forward bias – where a dc voltage VF is applied.

Figure 3.11: The pn junction in:

(a) equilibrium; (b) reverse bias;
(c) forward bias.

Oxford University Publishing

Microelectronic Circuits by Adel S. Sedra and Kenneth C.
Smith (0195323033)
step #1: Initially, a small forward-bias voltage (VF) is applied
reducing the width of the depletion zone.

VF

p-type n-type

The pn junction with applied voltage.

 step #2: As the magnitude of VF increases, the depletion zone
becomes thin enough such that the barrier voltage (V0 – VF)
cannot stop diffusion current – as described in previous slides.

VF

Note that removing barrier voltage does not facilitate diffusion, it

only removes the electromotive force which opposes it.

p-type n-type

The pn junction with applied voltage.

step #5+: Diffusion current is maintained by constant flow of
both free electrons and holes towards the junction.

VF

flow of diffusion current (ID)

flow of holes flow of electrons

p-type n-type

The pn junction with applied voltage.

 1.11.2. The Current-Voltage Relationship
of the Junction
 2
 Dp Dn   V / VT V / VT
(eq3.40) I   Aqni     (e  1)  I (e  1)
  L N L N   S

         
p D n A 
IS

• Saturation current (IS) – is the

maximum reverse current
which will flow through pn-
junction.
• It is proportional to cross-
section of junction (A).
• Typical value is 10-18A.
 Summary (1)

• Today’s microelectronics technology is almost entirely

based on the semiconductor silicon. If a circuit is to be
fabricated as a monolithic integrated circuit (IC), it is
made using a single silicon crystal, no matter how large
the circuit is.
• In a crystal of intrinsic or pure silicon, the atoms are held
in position by covalent bonds. At very low temperatures,
all the bonds are intact; No charge carriers are available
to conduct current. As such, at these low temperatures,
silicon acts as an insulator.
 Summary (2)

• At room temperature, thermal energy causes some of the

covalent bonds to break, thus generating free electrons
and holes that become available to conduct electricity.
• Current in semiconductors is carried by free electrons and
holes. Their numbers are equal and relatively small in
intrinsic silicon.
• The conductivity of silicon may be increased drastically by
introducing small amounts of appropriate impurity
materials into the silicon crystal – via process called
doping.
 Summary (3)

• There are two kinds of doped semiconductor: n-type in

which electrons are abundant, p-type in which holes are
abundant.
• There are two mechanisms for the transport of charge
carriers in a semiconductor: drift and diffusion.
• Carrier drift results when an electric field (E) is applied
across a piece of silicon. The electric field accelerates the
holes in the direction of E and electrons oppositely.
These two currents sum to produce drift current in the
direction of E.
 Summary (4)

• Carrier diffusion occurs when the concentration of charge

carriers is made higher in one part of a silicon crystal than
others. To establish a steady-state diffusion current, a
carrier concentration gradient must be maintained in the
silicon crystal.
• A basic semiconductor structure is the pn-junction. It is
fabricated in a silicon crystal by creating a p-region in
proximity to an n-region. The pn-junction is a diode and
plays a dominant role in the structure and operation of
transistors.
 Summary (5)

• When the terminals of the pn-junction are left open, no

current flows externally. However, two equal and
opposite currents (ID and IS) flow across the junction.
Equilibrium is maintained by a built-in voltage (V0). Note,
however, that the voltage across an open junction is 0V,
since V0 is cancelled by potentials appearing at the metal-
to-semiconductor connection interfaces.
• The voltage V0 appears across the depletion region, which
extends on both sides of the junction.
 Summary (6)

• The drift current IS is carried by thermally generated

minority electrons in the p-material that are swept across
the depletion region into the n-side. The opposite occurs
in the n-material. IS flows from n to p, in the reverse
direction of the junction. Its value is a strong function of
temperature, but independent of V0.
 Summary (7)
pn Junction Operation
• Reverse bias case
• the externally applied voltage VR
adds to (aka. reinforces) the
barrier voltage V0
• …increase effective barrier
• this reduces rate of diffusion,
reducing ID
• the drift current IS is unaffected,
but dependent on temperature
• result is that pn junction will
conduct small drift current -IS
minimal current flows in
reverse-bias case
• Forward bias case
• the externally applied voltage VF
subtracts from the barrier
voltage V0
• …decrease effective barrier
• this increases rate of diffusion,
increasing ID
• k
• the drift current IS is unaffected,
but dependent on temperature
• result is that pn junction will
conduct significant current ID - IS
significant current flows in
forward-bias case