Chapter 3

Lecture Outline
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3-1
 Ch 2 Homework

 Concept Review
 15, 16, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25

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 Chapter 3 Homework Assignment

 Concept Review
 1, 3, 5
 6, 7
 8, 9
 10, 11
 12

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 Organic Chemistry

 All organic molecules contain carbon.

– Inorganic molecules do not contain carbon.
 Biochemistry is the chemistry of living things.

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 Carbon: The Central Atom

 Carbon is the central

atom in all organic
molecules.
 Carbon has unique
bonding properties.
– Can combine with other
carbon atoms in long
chains
– Can form ring structures

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 Carbon: The Central Atom

 Carbon atoms
participate in four
covalent bonds.
– Has four electrons in the
outer energy level
– Can double bond with
oxygen
– Can triple bond with
other carbon atoms

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 Isomers

 Several factors determine the properties of an

organic molecule.
– The types of atoms in the molecule
– The 3-D arrangement of atoms within the molecule
 Organic molecules can have the same number and
composition of atoms, but can have different
arrangements.
– These are called isomers.
 Molecules with the same empirical formula but different
structural formulas

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 Hexose Isomers

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 How Science Works 3.1

 Generic Drugs and Mirror Image Isomers

 P49
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G-eMr1kx
orc&feature=related

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 The Carbon Skeleton

 All organic molecules have a carbon skeleton.

– This determines the overall shape of the molecule.
 Organic molecules differ in these ways:
– The length and arrangement of the carbon skeleton
– The kinds and location of atoms attached to it
– How the attached atoms are combined together
 These combinations are called functional groups.
 Functional groups determine the chemical nature of the
molecule.

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 Functional Groups

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 *Macromolecules of Life

 Macromolecules are very large organic

molecules.
 The most important organic compounds
found in living things are:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids
– Lipids

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 *Polymers

 Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are

polymers.
 Polymers are combinations of smaller building blocks.
– The building blocks are called monomers.
 Polymers are built via dehydration synthesis.
 Polymers are broken apart via hydrolysis.

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 Polymers

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 Carbohydrates
 Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
 All have the general formula CH2O
 Names end in –ose
 Serve as the primary energy source for most living
things
 Also serve as structural support
– Plant cell walls
 Important components of nucleic acids
– DNA and RNA

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 Simple Sugars

 Simple sugars are described by the number

of carbons in the molecule.
– Triose-3 carbons
– Pentose-5 carbons
– Hexose-6 carbons
 Examples of simple sugars:
– Glucose
– Fructose
– Galactose
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 Complex Carbohydrates

 When two or more simple sugars are

combined, they form complex carbohydrates.
– Formed via dehydration synthesis
 Disaccharides
– Two simple sugars
 Sucrose
 Lactose
 Maltose
 Trisaccharides
– Three simple sugars
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 Polysaccharides

 Contain many simple sugars

 Examples of polysaccharides:
– Starch and glycogen
 Used for energy storage in plants (starch) and animals
(glycogen)
– Cellulose
 Important component of plant cell walls
 Humans cannot digest cellulose; it is the fiber in our diet.
– Helps facilitate movement of food through the digestive
tract

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 Complex Carbohydrates

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 Proteins

 Proteins are polymers

made of amino acids.
 An amino acid contains:
– Central carbon
– Amino group
– Carboxyl group
– Hydrogen
 There are 20 different
amino acids.

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 The Structure of Proteins

 Amino acids are joined via dehydration synthesis.

– The bond formed between amino acids is called a peptide
bond.
 Several amino acids joined together form
polypeptide chains.

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 Primary Structure

 The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide constitutes

the primary structure of the protein.
 This sequence is dictated by information in genes (DNA).
 All levels of protein structure depend on the primary
sequence.

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 Secondary Structure

 Polypeptides twist and fold

into their secondary structure.
– Some sequences of amino
acids twist into a helix.
 This is called an alpha helix.
– Some sequences of amino
acids remain straight and
fold back on themselves.
 This is called a beta-pleated
sheet.

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 Tertiary Structure

 The various alpha

helices and beta
pleated sheets interact
to form a globular
structure.
 This globular structure
is unique for each
polypeptide.

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 Quaternary Structure

 Some proteins contain more

than one polypeptide chain.
 Each of these polypeptides
has its own unique tertiary
structure.
– These polypeptides interact
to form a more complex
globular structure.
 Quaternary structure can be
stabilized by disulfide bonds.

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 Protein Structure

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 Form and Function
 The protein’s overall shape
determines its job.
 If a protein is not shaped
properly, it likely will not work
properly.
 Example:
– Sickle cell anemia
– A mutation in the gene causes
the protein to have a different
shape.
– This shape change results in a
change in function.
 Denaturation:
– When heat or other
environmental conditions break
the bonds that stabilize tertiary
structure.

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 Sickle Cell Anemia

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 Types of Proteins

 Structural proteins
– Important in maintaining the shape of cells and
organisms
– Collagen
 Regulatory proteins
– Determine what activities will occur in a protein
– Enzymes and hormones
 Carrier proteins
– Transport molecules from one place to another
– Lipoproteins
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 Nucleic Acids

 The largest biological

molecules
 Store and transfer
information within a cell
 Include DNA and RNA
 Are made of
nucleotides
– 5-carbon sugar
– Phosphate group
– Nitrogenous group
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 Nucleotides

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 DNA
 Each DNA molecule is made of two strands.
– Held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous
bases
– The bases pair according to base pair rules.
 Adenine - thymine
 Cytosine - guanine
 The two DNA strands are twisted on each other, forming
a double helix.
 Each DNA strand is divided into segments.
– Each segment forms a gene.
– Genes are the recipes for proteins.
 The sequence of nucleotides in a gene dictate the order of amino
acids in a polypeptide.
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 The Structure of DNA

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 DNA and Chromosomes

 Each DNA strand has many genes.

 Each DNA strand is called a chromosome.
 Human cells have 46 chromosomes in each
cell.
– Each cell copies all of these chromosomes before
it divides to pass along to daughter cells.

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 The Functions of DNA

 DNA is able to:

– Replicate itself
– Store information and transmit it to offspring
– Direct synthesis of proteins
– Mutate (change chemically)

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 The Functions of DNA

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 RNA

 RNA is a single-stranded molecule.

 Contains uracil instead of thymine
 Base pairs with itself and DNA
– A-U
– G-C
 RNA is found in three different forms:
– mRNA (messenger RNA)
– rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
– tRNA (transfer RNA)

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 DNA vs. RNA

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 Lipids

 Commonly called fats

 Large and nonpolar
– Do not dissolve in water
– Dissolve in other nonpolar molecules like acetone
 Usually have very few oxygen atoms
 There are three main types of lipids:
– True fats (e.g., pork chop fat and oils)
– Phospholipids (membrane components)
– Steroids (hormones)

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 True (neutral) Fats

 Used to provide energy

 The building blocks of
fats
– A glycerol molecule
– Three fatty acids

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 Saturated vs. Unsaturated Lipids

 If the carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has as much

hydrogen as possible, the fat is called a saturated fat.
– Saturated fats are found in animal tissues and tend to be
solid at room temperature.
 If the carbons of a fat have double-bonded carbon
molecules in them, the fat is called unsaturated fat.
– Unsaturated fats are frequently plant fats and are liquids at
room temperature.
– A polyunsaturated fat has several double bonds.
– Fats are important energy storage molecules.

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 Saturated and Unsaturated
Fatty Acids

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 Saturated vs unsaturated fats

 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RtpKswj9K
KM&feature=fvsr

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 Phospholipids

 Are complex organic

molecules that
resemble fats but
contain phosphate
groups
 Phospholipids are the
major components of
cell membranes.
– Some are known as
lecithins.

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 Steroids
 Nonpolar molecules that are arranged in rings of
carbon
 Steroids are important components of cell
membranes.
– Cholesterol
 Steroids often serve as hormones and serve in
regulation of body processes.
– Testosterone, estrogen

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 Overview

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