Chemistry of Life - : Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids and Lipids

Chapter 3
Chemistry of Life
-carbohydrates,
proteins, nucleic acids
and lipids
3-1
Review questions from Chapter
1 – Q1
 When an insect walk, its legs are coordinated

to facilitate orderly movement. This is an
example of -
– Responsive process
– Generative process
– Control process
– Metabolic process
3-2
Review question from Chapter 1
- Q2
 A report published in the Journal “Human

Ecology” on 4th of August, 2014 has stated
that “Australia's Aboriginal Martu people hunt
kangaroos and set small grass fires to catch
lizards. This man-made disruption boosts
kangaroo _______, showing how co-
evolution helped marsupials to grow”.
– Population
– Community
3-3 – Organism
Review question from Chapter 1
- Q3
 Mammoths lived on this earth millions of

years ago. They went extinct mainly because
they were unable to bear the climate change.
This is an example of failure in the following
responsive process -
– Irritability
– Individual adaptation
– Evolution
3-4
Level of structural organization
within an organism
3-5
Chapter 3: Chemistry of life
Chemistry of life begins with

Carbon atom!
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3-6 reproduction or display.
Why Carbon atom is central to
all organic and bio-molecules?
 Because of it has
catenation property.
 It can elongate, linearly
 It can form branched
structures
 -C-C- bonds are stable
bonds

Carbon: The Central Atom
 Valency of carbon atom

is four
– It has four valence
electrons
– Can form single bond
– double bond
– triple bond

Isomers
 Two molecules with equal chemical composition

 but different arrangement of atoms within the
molecule.
 Different connectivities between atoms
– Geometrical isomers
– Optical isomers

Hexose Isomers

Basic elements of life
 Carbon (C)
 Nitrogen (N)
 Oxygen (O)
 Hydrogen (H)
– Phosphorous (P)
– Sulfur (S)
 Why these atoms constitute the base of life?
Chemical groups important for
life
 Hydroxyl (-O-H)
 Carbonyl (-C=O)
 Carboxyl (-COOH)
 Amine (-NH2)
 Sulfhydryl (-S-H)
 Phosphate (-PO43-)
 Aliphatic groups (e.g., -CH3)
Organic molecules essential for
life
 Amino acid (contains, amine, carboxylic acid)

 Nucleotides (phosphate, hydroxyl and many
more)
 Glucose (hydroxyl, carboxylic acid)
 Fatty acids (aliphatic chain, carboxylic acid)
 Glycerol (hydroxyl)
 ATP (one type of nucleotide)
Macromolecules of Life
 Macromolecules - large organic molecules

 Built from the smaller organic molecules
 Important macromolecules in living system:
– Carbohydrates
– Proteins
– Nucleic acids
– Lipids

Bio-Polymers
 Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are

polymers.
 Polymers are combinations of smaller building blocks.
– The building blocks are called monomers.
 Polymers are built via dehydration synthesis.
 Polymers are broken apart via hydrolysis.

Polymers

Carbohydrates
 Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen
 All have the general formula CnH2nOn
 Names end in –ose
 Serve as the primary energy source for most living
things
 Also serve as structural support
– Plant cell walls
 Important components of nucleic acids
– DNA and RNA

Simple Sugars
 Simple sugars are described by the number

of carbons in the molecule (mainly monomer)
– Triose-3 carbons
– Pentose-5 carbons
– Hexose-6 carbons
 Examples of simple sugars:
– Glucose
– Fructose
– Galactose
Complex Carbohydrates
 When two or more simple sugars are

combined, they form complex carbohydrates.
– Formed via dehydration synthesis
 Disaccharides
– Two simple sugars
 Sucrose
 Lactose
 Maltose
 Trisaccharides
– Three
Copyright simple
© The sugars
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Polysaccharides
 Contain many simple sugars
 Examples of polysaccharides:
– Starch and glycogen
 Used for energy storage in plants (starch) and animals
(glycogen)
– Cellulose
 Important component of plant cell walls
 Humans cannot digest cellulose; it is the fiber in our diet.
– Helps facilitate movement of food through the digestive
tract

What kind of carbohydrate these
fruits contain?

Is there any difference in terms of
sugar between ripe orange and
canned orange juice?

Why brown cookies are moist
and chewy compared to white
sugar cookies?

Why cow can digest grass but
not human beings?
Grass contain – carbohydrate – cellulose

Cow has cellulase enzyme that human does not have

Complex Carbohydrates

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

Proteins
 Proteins are polymers
made of amino acids.
 An amino acid contains:
– Central carbon
– Amino group
– Carboxyl group
– Hydrogen
 There are 20 different
amino acids.

The Structure of Proteins
 Amino acids are joined via dehydration synthesis.
– The bond formed between amino acids is called a peptide
bond.
 Several amino acids joined together form
polypeptide chains.

Primary Structure
 The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide

constitutes the primary structure of the protein.
 This sequence is dictated by information in genes
(DNA).
 All levels of protein structure depend on the primary
sequence.

Secondary Structure
 Polypeptides twist and fold

into their secondary structure.
– Some sequences of amino
acids twist into a helix.
 This is called an alpha helix.
– Some sequences of amino
acids remain straight and
fold back on themselves.
 This is called a beta-pleated
sheet.

Tertiary Structure
 The various alpha

helices and beta
pleated sheets interact
to form a globular
structure.
 This globular structure
is unique for each
polypeptide.

Quaternary Structure
 Some proteins contain more

than one polypeptide chain.
 Each of these polypeptides
has its own unique tertiary
structure.
– These polypeptides interact
to form a more complex
globular structure.
 Quaternary structure can be
stabilized by disulfide bonds.

Is quaternary structure a
necessity for proteins in
general?

Form and Function
 The protein’s overall shape
determines its job.
 If a protein is not shaped
properly, it likely will not work
properly.
 Example:
– Sickle cell anemia
– A mutation in the gene causes
the protein to have a different
shape.
– This shape change results in a
change in function.
 Denaturation:
– When heat or other
environmental conditions break
the bonds that stabilize tertiary
structure.
Types of Proteins
 Structural proteins
– Important in maintaining the shape of cells and
organisms
– Collagen, Keratins
 Regulatory proteins
– Determine what activities will occur in a protein
– Enzymes and hormones
 Carrier proteins
– Transport molecules from one place to another
– Lipoproteins
Nucleic Acids – blue print of life
 The largest biological
molecules
 Store and transfer
information within a cell
 Two types -DNA and RNA
 Are made of nucleotides
– 5-carbon sugar
– Phosphate group
– Nitrogenous group
Nucleotides

Two different types -

Purine – Two types

Adenine

Gunanine

Pyrimidine

Cytosine

Thymine (DNA)

Uracil (RNA)
Sugar and Phosphate.
Sugar
DNA – deoxyribose
RNA – Ribose
Phosphate

DNA
 Each DNA molecule is made of two strands.
– Held together by hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases
– The bases pair according to base pair rules.
 Adenine - thymine
 Cytosine - guanine
 The two DNA strands are twisted on each other, forming a double helix.
 Each DNA strand is divided into segments.
– Each segment forms a gene.
– Genes are the recipes for proteins.
 The sequence of nucleotides in a gene dictate the order of amino
acids in a polypeptide.

The Structure of DNA

DNA and Chromosomes
 Each DNA strand has many genes.

 Each DNA strand is called a chromosome.
 Human cells have 46 chromosomes in each
cell.
– Each cell copies all of these chromosomes before
it divides to pass along to daughter cells.

Review questions on DNA

What is the difference between DNA and
genes?

What is the difference between DNA and
chromosomes?

Does the entire DNA produce protein?

The Functions of DNA
 DNA is able to:

– Replicate itself
– Store information and transmit it to offspring
– Direct synthesis of proteins
– Mutate (change chemically)

The Functions of DNA

RNA
 RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
 Contains uracil instead of thymine
 Base pairs with itself and DNA
– A-U
– G-C
 RNA is found in three different forms:
– mRNA (messenger RNA)
– rRNA (ribosomal RNA)
– tRNA (transfer RNA)
DNA vs. RNA

Lipids
 Commonly called fats

 Large and nonpolar
– Do not dissolve in water
– Dissolve in other nonpolar molecules like acetone
 Usually have very few oxygen atoms
 There are three main types of lipids:
– True fats (e.g., pork chop fat and oils)
– Phospholipids (membrane components)
– Steroids (most hormones)
True (neutral) Fats
 Used to provide energy
 The building blocks of
fats
– A glycerol molecule
– Three fatty acids

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Lipids
 If the carbon skeleton of a fatty acid has as much
hydrogen as possible, the fat is called a saturated fat.
– Saturated fats are found in animal tissues and tend to be
solid at room temperature.
 If the carbons of a fat have double-bonded carbon
molecules in them, the fat is called unsaturated fat.
– Unsaturated fats are frequently plant fats and are liquids at
room temperature.
– A polyunsaturated fat has several double bonds.
– Fats are important energy storage molecules.
Saturated and Unsaturated
Fatty Acids
C18:2ω6

3-58 reproduction or display. C18:3ω3
Essential fatty acids
The fatty acids human body cannot make.

These fatty acids come from food.
Where from these fatty acids enter the food
chain?

Phospholipids
 Are complex organic
molecules that
resemble fats but
contain phosphate
groups
 Phospholipids are the
major components of
cell membranes.
– Some are known as
lecithins.
Steroids
 Nonpolar molecules that are arranged in rings of
carbon
 Steroids are important components of cell
membranes.
– Cholesterol
 Steroids often serve as hormones and serve in
regulation of body processes.
– Testosterone, estrogen

Overview


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Chapter 3

 When an insect walk, its legs are coordinated

 A report published in the Journal “Human

 Mammoths lived on this earth millions of

Chemistry of life begins with

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

 Valency of carbon atom

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

 Two molecules with equal chemical composition

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

 Amino acid (contains, amine, carboxylic acid)

 Macromolecules - large organic molecules

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

 Carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

 Simple sugars are described by the number

 When two or more simple sugars are

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Grass contain – carbohydrate – cellulose

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

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 The sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide

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 Polypeptides twist and fold

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 The various alpha

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 Some proteins contain more

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 Each DNA strand has many genes.

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 DNA is able to:

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 Commonly called fats

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The fatty acids human body cannot make.

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Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for

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