Because learning changes everything.

Chapter 03

The Chemical Building

Blocks of Life
BIOLOGY
Thirteenth Edition
Raven, Johnson, Mason, Losos,
Duncan

© 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.
 Lecture Outline

3.1 Carbon: The Framework of Biological

Molecules
3.2 Carbohydrates: Energy Storage and
Structural Molecules
3.3 Nucleic Acids: Information Molecules
3.4 Proteins: Molecules with Diverse
Structures and Functions
3.5 Lipids: Hydrophobic Molecules

Deco/Alamy Stock Photo

© McGraw Hill, LLC 2

 Modern Biochemistry

Modern biochemistry studies biological molecules outside of

cells.

Classes of biological macromolecules

• Carbohydrates

• Lipids

• Proteins

• Nucleic Acids

© McGraw Hill, LLC 3

 Cell-Free Fermentation
SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Hypothesis: Chemical reactions, such as the fermentation reaction in yeast, are controlled by enzymes and do not
require living cells.
Prediction: If yeast cells are broken open, these enzymes should function outside of the cell.
Test: Yeast is mixed with quartz sand and diatomaceous earth and then ground in a mortar and pestle. The resulting
paste is wrapped in canvas and subjected to 400–500 atm pressure in a press. Fermentable and nonfermentable
substrates are added to the resulting fluid, with fermentation being measured by the production of CO 2.

Result: When a fermentable substrate (cane sugar, glucose) is used, CO 2 is produced; when a nonfermentable substrate
(lactose, mannose) is used, no CO 2 is produced. In addition, visual inspection of the fluid shows no visible yeast cells.
Conclusion: The hypothesis is supported. The fermentation reaction can occur in the absence of live yeast.
Historical Significance: Although this is not precisely the intent of the original experiment, it represents the first use of a
cell-free system. Such systems allow for the study of biochemical reactions in vitro and the purification of proteins
involved. We now know that the “fermentation reaction” is actually a complex series of reactions. Would such a series of
reactions be your first choice for this kind of demonstration?

Figure 3.1 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 4

 Carbon

Framework of biological molecules consists primarily of

carbon bonded to
• Carbon
• O, N, S, P or H.
Can form up to four covalent bonds
Hydrocarbons – molecule consisting only of carbon and
hydrogen
• Nonpolar

© McGraw Hill, LLC 5

 Functional Groups

Functional groups are specific molecular groups that bond to

carbon-hydrogen cores
• Each group has unique chemical properties.
• Properties of functional groups are retained wherever
they attach and influence behavior of entire molecule in
reactions.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 6

 Examples of Functional Groups

Figure 3.2 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 7

 Isomers

Molecules with the same molecular or empirical formula

• Structural isomers – differ in structure of carbon skeleton.
• Stereoisomers – differ in how groups attached.
• Enantiomers.

• Chiral = four unique groups attached.

• Mirror image molecules.

• Examples: D-sugars and L-amino acids.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 8

 Enantiomers Are Mirror Images

Figure 3.3 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 9

 Macromolecules

• Polymer – built by linking monomers

• Monomer – small, similar chemical subunits
TABLE 3.1 Macromolecules
Macromolecule Subunit Function Example
CARBOHYDRATES
Starch, glycogen Glucose Energy storage Potatoes
Cellulose Glucose Structural support in plant cell walls Paper; strings of celery
Chitin Modified glucose Structural support Crab shells
NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA Nucleotides Encodes genes Chromosomes
RNA Nucleotides Needed for gene expression Messenger RNA
PROTEINS
Functional Amino acids Catalysis; transport Hemoglobin
Structural Amino acids Support Hair; silk
LIPIDS
Triglycerides Glycerol and three fatty acids Energy storage Butter; corn oil; soap
(animal fat, oils)
Phospholipids Glycerol, two fatty acids, phosphate, Cell membranes Phosphatidylcholine
and polar R groups
Prostaglandins Five-carbon rings with two nonpolar tails Chemical messengers Prostaglandin E (P GE)
Steroids Four fused carbon rings Membranes; hormones Cholesterol; estrogen
Terpenes Long carbon chains Pigments; structural support Carotene; rubber

© McGraw Hill, LLC 10

 Carbohydrates and Nucleic Acids Are Macromolecules

Figure 3.4 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 11

 Proteins and Lipids Are Macromolecules

Figure 3.4 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 12

 Assembly and Disassembly of Polymers

Dehydration synthesis
• Formation of large molecules by the removal of water.
• Monomers are joined to form polymers.

Hydrolysis
• Breakdown of large molecules by the addition of water.
• Polymers are broken down to monomers.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 13

 Carbohydrates

Molecules with a 1:2:1 ratio of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Empirical formula (CH2O)n

C—H covalent bonds hold much energy

• Carbohydrates are good energy storage molecules.
• Examples: sugars, starch, glucose.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 14

 Monosaccharides

• Simplest carbohydrate
• Sugars with six carbons play important roles

• Glucose C6H12O6

• Fructose is a structural isomer of glucose

• Galactose is a stereoisomer of glucose
• Enzymes that act on different sugars can distinguish
structural and stereoisomers of this basic six-carbon
skeleton

© McGraw Hill, LLC 15

 3-Carbon, 5-Carbon, and 6-Carbon Sugars

Figure 3.6 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 16

 Different Configurations of Glucose

Figure 3.7 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 17

 Isomers and Stereoisomers

Figure 3.8 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 18

 Disaccharides

• Two monosaccharides linked together by dehydration

synthesis
• Used for sugar transport or energy storage
• Examples: sucrose, lactose, maltose

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 19

 Polysaccharides

Long chains of
monosaccharides
• Linked through dehydration
synthesis.
Energy storage
• Plants use starch.
• Animals use glycogen.
Structural support OAR/National Undersea Research Program (NURP)

• Plants use cellulose.

• Arthropods and fungi use
chitin.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 20

 Starch and Glycogen Are Polysaccharides

(b) Asa Thoresen/Science Source; (c) Mike Rosecope/Shutterstock

Figure 3.10 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 21

 Cellulose Is a Polysaccharide in Plants

(b) Martin Kreutz/age fotostock

Figure 3.11 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 22

 Nucleic Acids

Polymer − nucleic acids

Monomers − nucleotides
• Sugar + phosphate +
nitrogenous base.
• Sugar is deoxyribose in DNA
or ribose in RNA.
• Nitrogenous bases include.
• Purines: adenine and
guanine.
• Pyrimidines: thymine,
cytosine, uracil.
• Nucleotides connect by
(a) Driscoll, Youngquist & Baldeschwieler, California Institute of
phosphodiester bonds. Technology/Science Source; (b) Molekuul/SPL/age fotostock

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 23

 Nucleotide Structure

Figure 3.14 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 24

 Nucleic Acid Structure

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 25

 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Encodes information for amino acid sequence of proteins

• Sequence of bases.

Double helix – two polynucleotide strands connected by

hydrogen bonds
• Base-pairing rules.
• A with T (or U in RNA).

• C with G.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 26

 Structure of DNA

Figure 3.17 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 27

 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) 3

RNA is similar to DNA except the nucleotides

• Contain ribose instead of deoxyribose.
• Include the base uracil instead of thymine.
Single polynucleotide strand
RNA uses information in DNA to specify sequence of amino
acids in proteins

© McGraw Hill, LLC 28

 DNA Structure Versus RNA Structure

Figure 3.18 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 29

 ATP, NAD+, and FAD

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• Primary energy currency of the cell.
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and flavin adenine
dinucleotide (FAD)

• Electron carriers for many cellular reactions.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 30

 Protein Functions

Protein functions include:

1. Enzyme catalysis
2. Defense
3. Transport
4. Support
5. Motion
6. Regulation
7. Storage

© McGraw Hill, LLC 31

 Protein Characteristics

Proteins are polymers

• Composed of one or more long, unbranched chains.
• Each chain is a polypeptide.
Amino acids are monomers
Amino acid structure
• Central carbon atom.
• Amino group (NH2).
• Carboxyl group (COOH).
• Single hydrogen.
• Variable R group.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 32

 20 Common Amino Acids

Figure 3.21 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 33

 Peptide Bonds

Amino acids joined by dehydration synthesis

• Bond formed between the amino end and carboxyl end of
two adjacent amino acids.

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 34

 Four Levels of Protein Structure

The shape of a protein determines its function

1. Primary structure − sequence of amino acids
2. Secondary structure − interaction of groups in the peptide
backbone
• helix = coiled spiral.

• sheet = planar structure.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 35

 Four Levels of Structure

3. Tertiary structure – final folded shape of a globular protein

• Stabilized by a number of forces.
• Final level of structure for proteins consisting of only a
single polypeptide chain.
4. Quaternary structure – arrangement of individual chains
(subunits) in a protein with two or more polypeptide
chains

© McGraw Hill, LLC 36

 Levels of Protein Structure

Figure 3.22 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 37

 Interactions That Contribute to a Protein’s Shape

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 38

 Additional Structural Characteristics

Motifs
• Common elements of secondary structure seen in many
polypeptides.
• Useful in determining the function of unknown proteins.

Domains
• Functional units within a larger structure.
• Most proteins made of multiple domains that perform
different parts of the protein’s function.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 39

 Protein Motifs and Domains

Figure 3.24 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 40

 Chaperones

Originally thought newly made proteins folded spontaneously

Chaperone proteins help proteins fold correctly
Deficiencies in chaperone proteins are implicated in certain
diseases
• Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disorder.
• In some individuals, protein appears to have correct amino acid
sequence but fails to fold.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 41

 An Example of a Protein Chaperone

Figure 3.25 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 42

 Denaturation

Protein loses its structure by unfolding and then also its

function
Due to environmental conditions
• pH.
• Temperature.
• Ionic concentration of solution.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 43

 Protein Denaturation

Figure 3.26
© McGraw Hill, LLC 44
 Primary Structure Determines Tertiary Structure
SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Hypothesis: The 3-D structure of a protein is the thermodynamically stable structure. It depends only on the primary
structure of the protein and the solution conditions.
Prediction: If a protein is denatured and allowed to renature under native conditions, it will refold into the native structure.
Test: Ribonuclease is treated with a reducing agent to break disulfide bonds and is then treated with urea to completely
unfold the protein. The disulfide bonds are re-formed under nondenaturing conditions to see if the protein refolds properly.

Result: Denatured ribonuclease refolds properly under nondenaturing conditions.

Conclusion: The hypothesis is supported. The information in the primary structure (amino acid sequence) is sufficient for
refolding to occur. This implies that protein folding results in the thermodynamically stable structure.
Further Experiments: If the disulfide bonds were allowed to re-form under denaturing conditions, would we get the same
result? How can we rule out that the protein had not been completely denatured and therefore retained some structure?

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 45

 Lipids

Loosely defined group of molecules with one main chemical

characteristic
• They are insoluble in water.

High proportion of nonpolar C—H bonds causes the

molecule to be hydrophobic
Fats, oils, waxes, terpenes, steroids, and even some
vitamins

© McGraw Hill, LLC 46

 Lipid Diversity

Figure 3.29 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 47

 Fats

Triglycerides
• Composed of one glycerol and three fatty acids.
Fatty acids
• Need not be identical.
• Chain length varies.
• Saturated – no double bonds between carbon atoms.
• Higher melting point, animal origin.
• Unsaturated – one or more double bonds.
• Low melting point, plant origin.
• Trans fats produced industrially.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 48

 Structure of Saturated Versus Unsaturated Fat

Figure 3.28 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 49

 Phospholipids

Composed of
• Glycerol
• Two fatty acids – nonpolar “tails”
• A phosphate group – polar “head”

Form all biological membranes

© McGraw Hill, LLC 50

 Phospholipid Structure

Figure 3.30 Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 51

 Micelles

Micelles – lipid molecules orient with polar (hydrophilic) head

toward water and nonpolar (hydrophobic) tails away from water

Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 52

 Phospholipid Bilayer

Phospholipid bilayer – more complicated structure where two

layers form
• Hydrophilic heads point outward.
• Hydrophobic tails point inward toward each other.
Access the text alternative for slide images.

© McGraw Hill, LLC 53

 End of Main Content

Because learning changes everything. ®

www.mheducation.com

© 2023 McGraw Hill, LLC. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill, LLC.