Hre Group 2

Design Criteria for
Highway and
Railways
Group 2 Members: Allen Justine Burce Harly Dave Dagohoy

Jayson Casaljay Victhur Morillo
Design Criteria for Highway and Railways
Consistency
Consistency is the most important
single rule in highway design. That is, by
making every element of the roadway
conforms to the expectation of every driver.
Drivers expect the highway agency to

provide them with:
1.Clear information and guidance through a
variety of road signs.
2.Avoiding abrupt changes in the traffic as
well as the road standards.
• If these guides and directions could be

planned properly to convey one single
message at a time, and if these
directions will be followed smoothly and
easily without undue haste, or changes in
speed, then, the roadway facilities are
considered satisfactory. Experienced
highway Engineers recommended that
highway signs and directions should be
integrated as early as the preliminary
layout studies.
The Design Speed

There is no single set of Geometric
Standards that will apply to all highways.
For every highway segment, decisions
regarding appropriate control for each of
the many details or requirements must be
addressed individually or separately.
Basic Design Features refers to the

tightness and super elevation of curves, the
sight distance, and grade. The design
speed is basically higher than the
anticipated average speed.
For economic reasons, the Geometric

Features of certain road sections are
designed for speed from 30 to 50 kilometers
per hour. And yet, some motorists drive
faster on straight road alignment or less
sharply curved sections. Under these
situations, highway design adopted control
by reducing the super elevation combined
with easement curves, delineators, stripping
signs and rumble strips, to alert motorists
and inform them that they are approaching
sharp curves or blind curves.
ACTUAL PHOTO OF
RUMBLE STRIPS
The AASHTO practice is to classify first the
highway as Rural or Urban, then as Freeways,
Arterials, Collectors and Local. Rural collectors
and local facilities are classified as flat, rolling, or
mountainous. Although the design speed presently
used is 80 km. per hour, highway designers
projected design speed up ta 120 kilometers per
hour to guarantee against future obsolescence as
well as the increased margin of operating safety.
The high speed road design must anticipate future
generation high speed vehicles and advanced
transportation systems that may operate on many
of these road alignments.
Although the design speed of most highways
is governed by construction costs, the concept
of the relatively high speed design for
freeways is Regardless of Cost. They are
planned for a nationwide high volume traffic
and high speed network.
AADT or ADT refers to traffic volume or flow
on a highway as measured by the number of
vehicles passing a partial station during a
given interval of time. It is called "Average
Annual Daily Traffic". if the period is less
than one year. Volume may be stated on
hourly "Observed Traffic Volume" or
estimated 30th hour volume commonly used
for design purposes. Some highway agencies
use traffic volume for 5 minutes interval to
distinguish short peak movements of
vehicles.
Speed Implications
Research shows that lower speeds lead to fewer
and less serious crashes. There are two reasons for this:
•At higher speeds a rider or a driver has less time to react

to a situation and therefore there is a greater likelihood
that an error will result in a crash; and
•The momentum and kinetic energy of a vehicle increases
rapidly with speed. The sudden dissipation of this energy
in a crash means that the injury to occupants is more
severe.
Current Speed Limits

The current speed restrictions are
set out in Chapter IV – Traffic Rules, in
Republic Act No. 4136 Land Transportation
and Traffic Code.
The rules indicate that a motorist
shall drive at a safe speed determined by
the driver based on the road environment
conditions. There are however maximum
allowable speeds for different road
environments.
On open country roads with no "blind

corners" not closely bordered by habitation,
the maximum speed for passenger cars
and motorcycles is 80 kph and for motor
trucks and buses, 50 kph.
On "through streets" or boulevards

clear of traffic, with no "blind corners", when
so designated, the maximum speed for
passenger cars and motorcycles is 40 kph
and for motor trucks and buses, 30 kph.
On city and municipal streets, with light traffic,
when not designated "through streets," the
maximum speed for passenger cars,
motorcycles, motor trucks and buses is 30 kph.
Where it is determined that a road

should have a different speed restriction to that
indicated above, then specific speed restriction
signs should be installed to inform motorists.
The following sections describe where certain
speed restriction could be appropriate.
High Risk Pedestrian Areas – 40 kph
Vulnerable road users, especially
pedestrians, are particularly vulnerable at
higher speeds. The graph below based on
international research shows the risk of a
pedestrian fatality if hit by a vehicle at
different speeds.
For instance, 25% of people struck
by a vehicle traveling at 40 kph would suffer
fatal injuries. At 50 kph this risk increases to
85%. Therefore, a speed limit of 40 kph or
lower would be appropriate on roads where
there is high pedestrian activity such as in
city areas.
A 40 kph speed limit would also be
appropriate on roads where there are no
one footpaths and pedestrians are required
to walk on the road.
Low risk pedestrian areas – 60 kph
On roads through built-up areas
where there are not so many pedestrians. It
is appropriate to allow motorized traffic to
travel more quickly.
The following pictures shows the
type of environment where 60 kph may be
appropriate. Although this road is carrying
vulnerable road users, they have separate
lane to travel in.
• HIGH SPEED ROAD WITH SEPARATE
LANE FOR NON-MOTORIZED
VEHICLES
80 kph
An 80 kph speed limit would be
appropriate on a high standard duplicated
carriage road where there is only occasional
access from adjoining properties.
100 kph
A 100 kph speed limit would only be
appropriate on very high standard
expressways, which have a low crash rate.
These expressways should have a high
standard geometry and should be free of
roadside hazards.
Speed Restriction Signs
Good speed management practice depends
on speed limit signs being placed in visible locations
and repeated frequently enough for motorists to be
certain of which speed zone they are in.
At the start of a new speed zone, a speed
limit sign should be erected on the left and right sides
of the road. Then within the first kilometer, there
should be two (2) farther pairs of repeater speed limit
signs.
•After that, repeater signs should be placed at one
kilometer spacing. Repeater signs should also be
placed before and after all major intersections to
confirm the speed limit to all traffic turning into the
road being considered.
Poor Road Standards
If the standard of the road geometry or its
surface is poor, then it may be appropriate to adopt a
lower speed limit than would normally apply until such
time that the road improvements can be made. The
lower speeds compensate for the hazardous
conditions of the road.
An 80 kph or 90 kph speed limit may also be
appropriate on lower standard expressways. For
instance, the concrete plant cylinders on the side of
the expressway as shown below are a serious road
hazard within the clear zone which would cause injury
to the occupants of an out of control vehicle. If this
road hazard cannot be removed or protection for
vehicles provided, the speed limit should be restricted
to reduce the risk to motorists and riders.
• HIGH SPEED ROAD WITH WIDE
MEDIAN
Road Capacity
Road capacity, as defined in the U.S.
Highway Capacity Manual (HCM), is the
maximum number of vehicles, which have a
reasonable expectation of passing over a
given section of a lane or a roadway in one
direction or in both directions during one hour
under prevailing road and traffic conditions.
Generally, road capacity with respect
to road sections is measured in terms of level-
of-service. This is designated with letters ‘A’
and ‘F’ with ‘A’ the most ideal condition and
‘F’ the saturated condition where volume is
equal to the road capacity.
In regard to intersections, capacity is generally
measured in terms of ‘degree of saturation’
The capacity of a route can be affected by the

following factors:
•Number of Lanes;
•Lane and shoulder width;
•Terrain and road gradient;
•Traffic composition;
•Side friction such as the presence of road furniture
and pedestrians; and
•Intersection capacity (priority and movements, traffic
signal phasing, number of lanes, etc.)
Ideal capacity of a road is 2.000
vehicles/hour (vph). However, based on several
surveys conducted in Metro Manila for various
infrastructure projects, it was found that the
maximum volume is achieve only at a level of 1,400
vph on expressways and 1,100 for urban arterials.
In the design stage of a road project,

appropriate capacity should be established to
ensure satisfactory operation. In establishing the
capacity of the road, actual traffic surveys as well as
investigation of future use is required to ensure that
safety is not compromised once the facility is in
operation.
Road Types
The basic functional types of roads are locals,
collectors, arterials and freeways. Two major
considerations in the classification of highway
functional types are access to land use and mobility.
On the two extremes, the design of local streets
emphasizes access with little consideration for
mobility, while the design of freeways emphasizes
mobility with limited access. The design of collectors
and arterials falls in between, with collectors
emphasizes more for access and arterials favors
mobility.
Design Vehicles
There are generally four classes of
design vehicles:
(1) passenger cars,
(2) buses,
(3) trucks, and
(4) recreational vehicles.
The passenger car category includes
sport utility vehicles, minivans, vans, and
pickup trucks.
The bus and truck categories include
buses and trucks of all sizes, respectively.
• The highway designer should exercise
his judgment in selecting the appropriate
design vehicle for design control, based
on the intended use of the facility. For
example, the design vehicle from the
passenger car category is adequate for
the design of parking lots and their
access roads. On the other hand, a city
transit bus should be used for the design
of a street in the city along bus route,
with little or no truck traffic.
Turning radius limits the design of

horizontal curves. Important vehicle
characteristics that affect the minimum
turning radius are: minimum center line
turning radius, wheelbase, track width, and
out-of-track width. AASHTO has provided
the templates for turning paths of 17 design
vehicles traveling at 15 km/h. The minimum
design turning, center line turning and
minimum inside radius are listed below.
Driver Characteristics
Geometric design of a highway should
consider users, especially drivers’ performance
limits. There are limits to a driver’s vision,
perception, reaction, concentration, and comfort
that could impact the highway safety and operating
efficiency.
When driving, most drivers receive

information visually from their views of the roadway
alignment, markings and signs. They do receive
other information through vehicle feedback from the
suspension system and steering control, and
roadway noise.
The information received by a driver needs time to be
processed before a response action takes place. A well-known
study on the brake-reaction time has been made by Johannson
and Rumar (1971). They reported that when an event is
expected, the driver’s reaction time has an average value of
0.6 sec. For an unexpected event, the average reaction time is
0.8 sec. The average brake-reaction time of a driver (including
decision time), is 2.5 sec. This is dependent on the driver’s
alertness. Brake-reaction time is important in determining sight
distance in highway geometric design. Koppa (2000) has
summarized the results obtained from recent studies on brake-
reaction time. These findings are consistent with those
obtained by Johansson and Rumar. Readers may refer to
Koppa (2000) for more details. Driver expectancies are built up
over time, with consistent road design. Unusual or unexpected
geometric design or event always leads to longer reaction and
response time. The geometric design of highway should be in
accordance with the driver’s expectation.
• In recent years, there has been
increased concern for older drivers. The
percentage of older drivers among the
driving population has increased over the
years. Older drivers tend to have longer
reaction time, and this should be
reflected in the design.
Number of Lanes
The number of lanes in a segment of
the highway is determined from the
estimated traffic volume for the design year
(AADT) and highway lane capacity at
expected level of service. AASHTO policies
accept a dually divided 16 lanes roadway
with four lanes in each direction for an inner
freeway and four more lanes in each
direction on the outside. There are some
instances where a reversible lane is located
at the center of freeways with unbalanced
heavy traffic flow.
Level of Service Consideration
Given a fixed volume of traffic flow and vehicle
composition, the geometric design of highways, such
as the horizontal and vertical curves, grades, lane
width, number of lanes, etc., affects the travel speed of
vehicles and the interaction between vehicles. The
outcome of such effect is the observable operational
performance of the highway, qualitatively represented
by the highway level of service. The concept of LOS
and methods of evaluation for different highway types
are covered in great detail in the Highway Capacity
Manual (TRB 2000).
The highway designer should strive to provide
a LOS that is as high as possible. AASHTO (2001) has
published a list of acceptable LOS for different road
types.
It is recommended that, after the designer has come
out with the geometric elements of the highway
(horizontal and vertical curves, grades, super-
elevation, etc.) after checking through all the design
elements, he should estimate the LOS based on the
road type, designed volume, vehicle composition,
number of lanes, and lane width. The geometric
design should be revised if the LOS is not meeting.
the expectation (for examples, by modifying
the grades, radius of curvature). He should also
ensure that continuous segments of the same
highway do not have sudden change in LOS that
may cause surprise to the drivers.
Railroad - Highway Separation
The main question asked on a railroad and
highway separation is: 'Where one is to go over- the
railroad or the highway? If the highway is to go over
the railroad, the structure itself is lighter and the
highway load is much smaller than the railroad
loads. With regards to the vertical clearance height,
the railroad requires a minimum of 7.00 meters as
against 4.80 meters clear distance above the
highway. If the highway goes under the railroad,
special provision is required for the removal of
rainwater that falls within the opposing area. If the
ground water is high in the vicinity of the crossing,
the roadway must be sealed against leakage and be
made heavy enough to prevent from floating.
DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAYS
Equilibrium speed
•When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved
track is such that the resultant force of the weight
of the vehicle and of radial acceleration is
perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle
is not subjected to any unbalanced radial
acceleration and is said to be in equilibrium.
•This particular speed is called the equilibrium
speed. The equilibrium speed, as such, is the
speed at which the effect of the centrifugal force is
completely balanced by the cant provided.
Maximum permissible speed
•This is the highest speed permitted to a
train on a curve taking into consideration
the radius of curvature, actual cant, cant
deficiency, cant excess, and the length of
transition.
•On curves where the maximum
permissible speed is less than the
maximum sectional speed of the section of
the line, permanent speed restriction
becomes necessary
Cant deficiency
•Cant deficiency (Cd) occurs when a train
travels around a curve at a speed higher
than the equilibrium speed. It is the
difference between the theoretical cant
required for such high speeds and the actual
cant provided.
Cant Excess
•Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train
travels around a curve at a speed lower than
the equilibrium speed. It is the difference
between the actual cant provided and the
theoretical cant required for such a low
speed.
•The limiting values of cant excess have
also been prescribed. Cant excess should
not be more than 75 mm on broad gauge
and 65 mm on meter gauge for all types of
rolling stock.
Cant gradient and cant deficiency
gradient
•These indicate the increase or decrease in
the cant or the deficiency of cant in a given
length of transition.
•A gradient of 1 in 1000 means that a cant
or a deficiency of cant of 1 mm is attained
or lost in every 1000 mm of transition
length.
Rate of change of cant or cant deficiency
•This is the rate at which cant deficiency
increases while passing over the transition
curve, e.g., a rate of 35 mm per second
means that a vehicle will experience a
change in cant or a cant deficiency of 35
mm in each second of travel over the
transition when travelling at the maximum
permissible speed.
Centrifugal Force on a Curved Track
•A vehicle has a tendency to travel in a
straight direction, which is tangential to the
curve, even when it moves on a circular
curve. As a result, the vehicle is subjected
to a constant radial acceleration:
Radial acceleration, g = V2/R

where V is the velocity (meters per
second) and R is the radius of curve
(meters)
• This radial acceleration produces a
centrifugal force which acts in a radial
direction away from the center. The value
of the centrifugal force is given by the
formula:
Force = mass × acceleration
F = m × (V2/R) = (W/g) × (V2/R)
where F is the centrifugal force (tonnes),
W is the weight of the vehicle (tonnes),
V is the speed, (meter/sec), g is the
acceleration due to gravity (meter/sec2),
and R is the radius of the curve (meters).
• To counteract the effect of the centrifugal
force, the outer rail of the curve is elevated
with respect to the inner rail by an amount
equal to the superelevation.
• A state of equilibrium is reached when both
the wheels exert equal pressure on the rails
and the superelevation is enough to bring
the resultant of the centrifugal force and the
force exerted by the weight of the vehicle at
right angles to the plane of the top surface
of the rails. In this state of equilibrium, the
difference in the heights of the outer and
inner rails of the curve known as equilibrium
superelevation.
THANK YOU

Hre Group 2

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Hre Group 2

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Design Criteria for

Group 2 Members: Allen Justine Burce Harly Dave Dagohoy

Drivers expect the highway agency to

• If these guides and directions could be

The Design Speed

Basic Design Features refers to the

For economic reasons, the Geometric

•At higher speeds a rider or a driver has less time to react

Current Speed Limits

On open country roads with no "blind

On "through streets" or boulevards

Where it is determined that a road

The capacity of a route can be affected by the

In the design stage of a road project,

Turning radius limits the design of

When driving, most drivers receive

Radial acceleration, g = V2/R

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