CHAPTER 5

PLANT REPRODUCTION
At the end of this chapter, students
should be able to:

 Explain the meaning of asexual reproduction

 Explain the meaning of sexual reproduction
 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of asexual
reproduction and sexual reproduction
 Reproduction
 Plant reproduction is the process by which plants generate or
producing new individuals, or offspring from its parents.
 It is an inherent characteristic of all living organism to continue
or maintain their races by the mechanism of reproduction.
Modes of Reproduction in Plants

ASEXUAL
• Does not involve sex cell and fertilization
• A single organism produces new individuals
• New offspring produced by mitosis & genetically identical to his
parents
• New plant arises from vegetative parts
• No spore or no seed formation

SEXUAL
• By means of sex, fertilization, fusion of gametes
• Involves 2 gametes fuse to form a zygote
• Process of gamete formation involve meiosis division
• Offspring are not genetically identical to his parents
• New plant arises through reproductive part = flower
• Fruits and seeds are formed
Asexual reproduction
 involves only one parent,
 does not involve seeds or the
fusion of gametes
 part of a plant’s such as stem,
leaves and roots can become
new plants.
 Produces offspring / clones
genetically identical to the
parent,
 Allows plants to be produced
much faster than sexual
reproduction.
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Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction occurs through:
 Spore formation
 Vegetative Propagation,
 Budding,
 Fragmentation
SPORE FORMATION
• A spore is a reproductive structure that
is adapted for dispersion & surviving for
extended periods of time in unfavorable
conditions.
• are usually haploid & unicellular
• are produce by meiosis in the
sporophyte
• are usually small, light and easily
dispersed
• algae, fungi, mosses, and ferns
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

 Most plants have roots, stems and leaves.

 These are called the vegetative parts of a plant.
 Vegetative Propagation is a type of asexual reproduction in which new plants are
produced from roots, stems, leaves and buds.
 Since reproduction is through the vegetative parts of the plant, it is known
as vegetative propagation.
 Can happen:
1. naturally e.g. runners, tubers, plantlets, bulbs
2. Can be done artificially by growers.

Eg: Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant) has buds in the

margins of leaves.
If a leaf of this plant falls on a moist soil, each bud
can give rise to a new plant

Bryophyllum (sprout leaf plant)

VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION
Natural vegetative propagation
Definition • Refer to the natural development
of a new plant without human
intervention
• Vegetative parts of plant such as • It includes growing's plant by man-made
modified stem like onion bulbs,
runners of strawberry, rhizomes
of ginger, tuber of potato all
posses buds. When sow in soil,
they develop into a new plant
Occurrence • Naturally occurs in plant
Methods • Occurs through roots, bulbs,
corms, tubers, suckers, rhizomes,
runners, plantlet, etc
Role • Helps to avoid physical barriers
in sexual reproduction
Example • Garlic, taro, banana
Artificial vegetative propagation
• Refers to the artificial development of
new plants by means of human
intervention
methods
• Occurs under the influence of man
• Occurs through budding, grafting,
layering, cutting, tissue culture etc
• Helps to maintain desirable characters
over generation
• Rubber, roses, bougainvillea
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION

Vegetative propagation may form new plants from the following structures:
1. stems, such as runners in strawberries
2. roots, such as root tubers in sweet potato
3. leaves, in sansevieria
4. buds, in bulbs such as onions or daffodils

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1. Natural Vegetative
propagation
Based on using vegetative organ (stem, root, leaf) or parts of
existing stock by forming adventitious root and adventitious
shoot to generate new plants.

This daughter plants will have traits identical to parent plant and
called as clone.

Asexual growth by modified stem: rhizome, tuber, bulb, stolon

or runner, corm, suckers

Rhizome, tuber, bulb, corm - acts as food storage

Without special food storage - runners, suckers, leaf buds

 Tuber
Rhizome

Bulbs
Corm
 Suckers

Runner
 Developmental Structures of Natural Vegetative Propagation in Plants
Developmental
Type of Structure
structure

Modified stems that horizontally grow along the ground surface or underground
Rhizomes
Ex: Lilies, irises, orchids, and certain grasses

Modified stems that horizontally grow on or under the surface of the ground
Runners/Stolons
Ex: Strawberry and currants
Swollen, underground stems
Bulbs
Ex:  Garlic, onion, lilies, daffodils, tulips, and shallots
Vegetative structures developed from root or stems
Tubers Ex: Stem tubers – Potatoes and yams
Root tubers – Sweet potatoes and dahlias
Enlarged, bulb-like underground stems
Corms
Ex: Taro, gladiolus, and crocus
Plant shoots arisen from underground buds
Suckers/Root
Ex: Apple, cherry, and banana trees, hazel, shrubs, raspberries, gooseberries, and
sprouts
rose
Vegetative structures developed at the margin of leaves
Plantlets Ex: Kalanchoe, spider plant, hawkweed, dandelion, some citrus, some orchids,
and many kinds of grass
Flower-like structures
Bulbils
Ex: Garlic
Methods of Natural Propagation:
Modified stem
a) Runners
 Horizontal stem which grows or
runs over the soil surface.
 The terminal bud sends up new
shoots & down new roots from it.
 e.g. strawberries
Methods of Natural Propagation:
Modified stem
b) Stem tubers
 The tips of these underground stems
become swollen with stored food -
starch.
 The swollen tips are called tubers.
 The “eyes” are lateral buds that
produce new shoots and roots using
the stored food.
 E.g. Potatoes

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Methods of Natural Propagation:
Modified root
a) Root Tubers
 fibrous roots which swell with stored food
 the tubers break off & grow into a new plant
 e.g. tapioca
Methods of Natural Propagation:
Modified root
b) Tap Roots
 are swollen roots for food storage in
plants,
 storage in biennial plants.
 e.g. carrot and turnip,
 Methods of Natural Propagation:
Modified leaves
a) Plantlets
 Some plants produce small plants on the side of their leaves.
 When they reach a certain size, they fall off and grow into new plants.
 e.g. cacti and Bryophyllum
 Methods of Natural Propagation:
Modified leaves
b) Bulbs
 A bulb (an underground bud) has a
reduced stem, roots,
 fleshy leaves swollen with stored food
and a main bud in the centre which
grows into a new plant
 e.g. onion, daffodil, tulip
2. Artificial Vegetative propagation
 Artificial vegetative propagation is usually used for
the propagation (or reproduction) of those plants which produce either very
few seeds or do not produce viable seeds.
 Examples: Banana, Pineapple, Orange, Grape, Rose, etc.
 Artificial propagation can be conducted via:
1) Cuttings – stem, leaf, root
2) Grafting – stem
3) Layering – stem/shoot
4) Budding – bud
5) Micropropagation : Tissue culture – stem, leaf, root
• Grafting is a process in which branches of two similar
plants one potted plant and the other of a good
• Layering, the roots are induced to develop
quality plant are obliquely cut and placed over each in the branch of a rooted plant buries in
other and tied by a tape and left for a month or so. the soil
The new plant will develop from it.
 Cutting

Grafting

Budding
Micro propagation /Tissue culture
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Using only a single parent to  All offspring are identical to
generate new offspring parents thus no quality
improvement.
 Producing large number of
offspring  Organisms are unable to
adapt to changing conditions.
 Can be produce in a short
time  Susceptible to disease as no
genetic variation
 Do not need pollinator agent
 Compete for food as they
 New offspring are genetically
produced in colony
identical to his parents
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Sexual reproduction is involving two haploid gametes

(n) fuse to form a diploid zygote (2n), which then
grows into a new offspring which are genetically
different from the parent.
 Plant produce reproductive organs called flower
 Sexual cell called gametes are made in the
reproductive organs
 Flower have specialized structures which are either
female or male reproductive organ
 Male reproductive organ make pollen grain
 Female reproductive organs contain egg cells in the
ovule inside the ovary
 The gametes fuse in a process called fertilization
 After fertilization, fruit and seed developed from part
of the former flower
 Overview of the Flower
Flower is a component of the shoot system and
is the characteristic feature of angiosperms.
Flower is responsible for the development of
and seed and fruits.
It is the plant's reproductive structure.

They are usually bright colored to attract insects

for pollination.
Flowers that are not colorful are pollinated by
wind.
All flowers have the basic four main parts:
sepals, petals, stamens and carpels.
The stamen is the male part of the plant and
carpel is the female part of the plant.
 Structure of the Flower
Stamen
• Male part of the Carpel
flower • Female part of the
• Anther: produce flower
pollen grain • Stigma: sticky
• Filament: support landing site for
anther above female pollen grains
reproductive organs • Style: slender tube;
transport pollen to
ovary
Petal • Ovary: contain
• Often larger and
ovules; develop into
brightly colored.
fruit after
• The petals collectively
fertilization
are known as the • Ovule: contain egg
Corolla and help
cell which develops
attracting insects for
into seed when
pollination
fertilized

Sepal
Receptacle Protect of flower parts while in
The stem portion, it is found at bud.
the base in the center of the Combination of sepals called
flower. Calyx
Sexual Reproduction in Plants: Pollination

CROSS POLLINATION SELF POLLINATION

 also called allogamy,  occurs when pollen from one
 occurs only when pollen is flower pollinates the same flower
delivered to a flower from a or other flowers of the same plant.
different plant.
DEVELOPMENT OF GAMETOPHYTES
 Asexual vs sexual reproduction:
Advantages
Asexual
• Uniformity in offspring
• Can increase populations rapidly
• Does not require a mate for reproduction
to take place – only one parent can do
• Much faster process
• Little energy is required
• Less likely for errors to occur
• Less danger involved
Sexual
• Offspring less likely to have mutation
show up (genetic variation)
• Successful traits can be selected and
failed traits can be prevented from
passing on for the next generation
• Freedom mate selection
• Less likely to go extinct
• Species can adapt to new environment
due to variation which gives them a
survival advantage
• Offspring more tolerance to disease
 Asexual vs sexual reproduction:
Disadvantages
Asexual Sexual
• Lacks genetic variation and lack of • Slower process
diversity in offspring because they
reproduce offspring genetically identical to
parents, the offspring inherit any mutations
of the parent.
• Species more vulnerable to extinction due • Lots of energy required
to environmental change

• If parent has disease, offspring has it too • Mate required – can be difficult to find

• Species only suited to one habitat • Greater chance of error (harmful mutation)

• Population increases are limited

 Advantages Of the asexual reproduction

 has the ability to take many different extensive forms which allow asexual reproduction to succeed in
various environments ?
 have a great ability to create their offspring as this process doesn’t need to move to another place .
 has rapid increase of offspring which is very helpful in producing lots of offspring
 requires less energy so, the plants can produce  many offspring without considering the amount of
time or energy to consume.
 does not need to look for a mate as looking for a mate is difficult or impossible with the sexual
reproduction  especially when colonizing new areas and it needs only one parent which is ready to
reproduce.
  
 Allows for a quick "doubling of population because they skip pollination and fertilisation.There is less
energy required for asexual reproduction.Large colonies can form that out complete the other organisms for
nutrients and water. Large numbers of organisms that the species may survive when conditions or the
number of predators change.No need to find a mate.
  
 Sexual reproduction leads to genetic variation in new generations of offspring. This is fundamental to
evolution. Due to the two gametes joining, the plant is adaptable. Because there is genetic variation each
and every plant is unique. So if a disease spreads out some will die and some will survive so the population
would sustain.For plants it allows seeds to be dispersed over large areas to give the species a chance to
colonize new habitats.
 Disadvantages Of Asexual Reproduction
  
 have less chance to adapt to the changes of the environment.
 there will be genetic defects or the mutation in the offspring with no exception (inherit the genetic).
 usually leads to struggle for the existence as well as the overcrowding
 There will be a lack of genetic variation because the daughter offspring look exactly and have the
same genetic material as the parent.
 A negative mutation can make an asexually reproduced organisms susceptible to disease and can
destroy large numbers of offspring.
 competition for resources because their population doubles after every reproduction cycle.
  
 Requires more energy to sexually reproduce than asexually because they rely on the presence of animals
or wind to pollinate.
  
 In the end only a few seeds will germinate. Plants have to be visually appealing to attract insects to the
flower.
  
 Genetic "errors" happen more frequently because meiosis is more complex than mitosis.
  
 Organisms are not as well as adapted to their environment as their parents.
Development of Male and
Female Gametophytes

MALE GAMETOPHYTE
 Its development begins within the pollen sac
(sporangia) of the anther.
 Within the pollen sac are microsporocyte, each
of which will form 4 haploid microspores
through meiosis.
 A microspore divides once by mitosis and
produce a generative cell and a tube cell.
 The tube cell, enclosing a generative cell,
produce the pollen tube, which deliver sperm
to the egg.
 A pollen grain (generative and tube cell) is an
immature male gametophyte.
 A pollen grain becomes a mature gametophyte
when the generative cell divides by mitosis to
form two sperm cells.
Development of Male and
Female Gametophytes
FEMALE GAMETOPHYTE
 Ovules, each containing a single sporangium, form within the
ovary.
 One cell of the sporangium of each ovule, the megasporocyte,
grows and then goes through meiosis, producing 4 haploid
megaspores.
 In many angiosprems, only one megaspore survives.
 This megaspore divides by mitosis 3 times, resulting in one cell
with 4 haploid nuclei.
 At one of the egg sac, two synergids cells flank the egg cell or
female gametophyte.
 The synergids function in the attraction and guidance of the
pollen tube.
 At the other end of egg sac are 3 antipodal cells of unknown
function.
 The other 2 nuclei, the 2 polar nuclei, will share the cytoplasm
of the large central cell of the embryo sac.
 The ovule now is consists of the embryo sac and the
surrounding integuments (covering the ovule).
Double fertilization

 Double fertilization involves two

sperm cells;
 one fertilizes the egg cell to form
the zygote (2n),
 while the other fuses with the two
polar nuclei that form the
endosperm (3n).
 After fertilization, the fertilized
ovule forms the seed while the
tissues of the ovary become the
fruit.
Double fertilization

 After pollen is deposited on the stigma, it germinate and grow through the style to reach the
ovule.
 The pollen, contain two cells: the pollen tube cell and the generative cell.
 The pollen tube cell grows into a pollen tube through which the generative cell travels.
 As it travels through the style to reach the embryo sac, the pollen tube's growth is supported
by the tissues of the style.
 The pollen tube is guided by the chemicals secreted by the synergids present in the embryo
sac; it enters the ovule sac through the micropyle.
 Of the two sperm cells, one sperm fertilizes the egg cell, forming a diploid (2n) zygote; the
other sperm fuses with the two polar nuclei, forming a triploid (3n) cell that develops into the
endosperm.
 After fertilization is complete, no other sperm can enter.
 The fertilized ovule forms the seed, whereas the tissues of the ovary become the fruit, usually
enveloping the seed.
Double fertilization
Double fertilization