HOMEOSTASIS

• Definition; Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal environment.

Examples include maintaining a constant body temperature, pH, water concentration, and glucose
concentration.
• Importance
• Keeping a constant temperature helps enzymes to work at an optimum temperature
• Keeping a constant amount of water means that your cells are not damaged by absorbing or
loosing too much water by osmosis
• Keeping a constant concentration of glucose means that there is always enough fuel for
respiration
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
• Description
• When a change in the internal environment of the body is detected, (eg;
temperature rises too high or blood glucose concentration goes above normal) , a
process is started which returns the internal environment to normal. After the
conditions have been returned to normal, the process is switched off. This
mechanism is referred to as the Negative Feedback Mechanism.
• It is called ‘negative’ because the process works to correct or eliminate the
change in the internal environment.
 Controlling Blood Glucose

• The blood glucose concentration is carried out by the pancreas and the liver
• Importance
• Cells need a study supply of glucose to allow them respire.
• Too much glucose in the blood causes water to move out of the cells into the
blood by osmosis.
• Mechanism
• A group of cells in the pancreas known as islets of Langerhans produce two
hormones; insulin and glucagon
• Insulin lowers blood sugar whiles glucagon increases blood sugar.
 Blood Glucose

• After a high carbohydrate meal, the blood glucose concentration goes up

• The islets of Langerhans detect this and secrete the hormone insulin
• Insulin causes the liver to absorb glucose from the blood and convert it to
glycogen for storage.
• When the blood glucose concentration decreases, the pancreas detects this and
secrete the hormone glucagon
• Glucagon causes the liver to break down glycogen to glucose and release it into
the blood
• This is an example of a negative feedback mechanism
 Questions

• Define homeostasis
• Three advantages of keeping the internal environment constant
• Explain what is meant by negative feedback mechanism
• Explain the roles of the pancreas and the liver in maintaining a constant blood
glucose concentration
• Explain why the regulation of blood glucose concentration can be described as a
negative feedback mechanism
Diagram of the Skin
 Maintenance of a Constant Body Temperature
• The hypothalamus of the brain controls the internal temperature of the body
• In cold
• If the body temperature falls below 37 degrees Celsius, nerve impulses from the hypothalamus cause the
following to happen
The muscles contract and relax quickly to produce heat. (shivering)
The erector muscles of the skin contract to pull the hairs to stand up. This traps a layer of warm air next to
the skin
The arterioles near the surface of the skin become narrower to reduce blood flow (vasoconstriction).
Mammals also have a layer of fatty tissue beneath the skin which acts a good insulator as it does not conduct
heat very well
• In heat
The sweat glands produce sweat to the surface of the skin. The sweat then evaporates, taking the heat of the
skin with it.
The erector muscles in the skin relaxes so the hairs lie flat
The arterioles near the surface of the skin become wider to increase blood flow (vasodilation).
This is an example of a negative feedback mechanism
VASODILATION AND VASOCONSTRICTION
 DRUG
• Definition; any substance taken into the body that modifies or affects chemical
reactions in the body.
• Antibiotics
• Antibiotics are substances made by bacteria or fungi that are used to kill bacteria.
• Example of an antibiotic is penicillin. Penicillin is made by the fungus penicillium.
• How antibiotics work
• Antibiotics act on bacteria by inhibiting cell wall formation leading to the
breakdown of the cell wall and the leakage of its content.
• Why antibiotics don’t work against viruses
• Viruses are not cells, they do not carry out their own metabolism but rely on the
cells of their host for reproduction.
• This means to control viruses we would have to use antibiotics that inhibit our own
metabolism. Antiviral drugs work differently control viruses
 Effect of antibiotics

• Doctors are now more reluctant to prescribe antibiotics. They are using them less
and less now.
• This is because with time, some bacteria mutate and become resistant to the
antibiotics. This means the drug no longer affects them.
• In situation where antibiotics are widely used, the resistant bacterium will survive
and multiply in greater numbers than the non resistant one.
• Remedy
• To minimise antibiotic resistance, antibiotics should be used only when essential.
This is because the more the bacteria get exposed to the drug, the greater its
chances of developing resistance.
• Also when taking antibiotics, you should ensure that treatment is complete
before you stop taking it.
 DRUGS
HEROIN
• ORIGIN
• Opium poppies produce a substance called opium which is the raw material for making heroin
• Properties
• Heroin is a powerful depressant. This means it slows down the nervous system and many functions of the brain.
Because of this property, it reduces pain, slows down breathing, and slows down the function of the
hypothalamus.
• It produces a feeling of contentment and intense happiness when taken for the first time. This is knows as
euphoria
• Heroin can be very addictive. It becomes part of the body’s metabolism and the body quickly gets used to the
drug. That is, it causes a person to be dependent on it. Because of this, they are not able to take it without
suffering psychological or physical symptoms. These symptoms are known as withdrawal symptoms.
• Withdrawal symptoms can include sleeplessness, hallucination, sweating, vomiting and nausea.
• After some time, their body becomes tolerant of the drug. They need to take in more and more to obtain any
feeling of pleasure.
 HEROIN
• EFFECTS
• The drug can be expensive, which drives many to turn to crime in order to fund their habit
• Addicts often lose their job because they may think of only how to get the next dose, resulting in lack of focus.
• Addicts turn to shun friends and families and become isolated from society. This leads to family breakdown and
homelessness.
• Injecting heroin through the veins can be dangerous because the needles often used is not sterile. This leads to
infections such as hepatitis and HIV virus.
• Injecting heroin can also cause veins to collapse and surrounding tissues to die, giving the condition known as
gangrene.
 HEROIN
• HOW HEROIN AFFECTS THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
• In the brain, there are chemicals called neurotransmitters. Their function is to transmit signals or nerve impulses
from one nerve cell to another.
• The reason for this is, nerve cells are not joined together. There is a space between them called synapse. Therefore,
when a nerve impulse gets to the end of one nerve cell, a neurotransmitter is released into the space or synapse
which binds to other nerve cell and generate a new impulse.
• There are receptors on the cell membrane of the second neurone, which have a shape into which the
neurotransmitters molecules precisely fit. (like a substrate into an active site)
• There are a group of neurotransmitters known as endorphins. Their function is to reduce the sensation of pain,
hunger and thirst while giving you a “feel-good” effect.
• When heroin enters the brain, it is metabolised to morphine,
which is able to fit into the receptors meant for the endorphin.
That is why heroin makes people fell good.
• Unfortunately when this occurs the production of the body’s
natural endorphin is reduced.
• Heroin therefore affects the brain by slowing down the transmission
of nerve impulses at the synapse.
 ALCOHOL

• Why people drink alcohol

• People often drink alcohol because they enjoy the effect it has on the brain. It makes them more relaxed and
release their inhibitions, making it easier for them to enjoy themselves.
• Properties
• Since alcohol is a small molecule and also soluble, it is absorbed into the blood quickly when consumed.
• It is absorbed by the liver cells and broken down with the help of enzymes.
• It is also a depressant. Meaning it affects the brain by slowing down the transmission of nerve impulses.
• Effects
• Lengthens reaction time; since it is a depressant, alcohol slows down the action of parts of the brain. This
lengthens the time taken to respond to stimulus, also known as reaction time.
• Increases aggression in some people; in some people, alcohol increases their feeling of aggression so that they are
more likely to be violent or commit crime.
• Large intake of alcohol can kill; large intake of alcohol can result in unconsciousness, coma and even death.
Sometimes death is caused by a person vomiting when unconscious and suffocating because their airways are
blocked.
• Large intake of alcohol can damage the liver; excessive alcohol intake leads to a liver condition known as cirrhosis.
This is because the liver is overworked to breakdown all that alcohol being taken in.
 TOBACCO SMOKE

• Tobacco smoke contains nicotine, tar, carbon monoxide and smoke particles
• Effects of nicotine
• It is a stimulant. That is, it makes a person feel more alert. It is also an addictive drug.
• It makes the heart beat faster and narrow blood vessels, leading to high blood pressure (hypertension).
• It also increases the risk of getting coronary heart diseases.
• Effects of Tar
• Tar contains carcinogens. It therefore increases the risk of lung cancer
• Irritates the lining of the airways , stimulating them to produce more mucus. This leads to narrow airways.
• Effects of Carbon Monoxide
• Combines with haemoglobin inside the RBC. This means less oxygen is carried by the blood and ultimately
deprives the body cells of oxygen.
• Effects of smoke particles
• They accumulate in the lung tissue. Unfortunately the chemicals secreted by the white blood cells to remove
them do damage to the lungs themselves, resulting in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD)
• This reduces the surface of the gas exchange system, resulting in a condition known as emphysema, because
they cannot absorb enough oxygen to remove carbon dioxide efficiently.
 SMOKING AND LUNG CANCER

• HISTORY
• In the 1950s doctors became concerned about the rapid rise in lung cancers among the British population
• A medical researcher Richard Doll interviewed lung cancer patients from 20 hospitals and realised that all these
people were smokers.
• Further research was conducted by other scientists to confirm his theory.
• Correlation
• The graph in fig 15.12 shows that there is a correlation between the number of
cigarettes smoked per year and the number of deaths from lung cancer.
• Even though tobacco companies tried to down play this link, many research has
been done to conclude that the tar in cigarette smoke causes cancer for both active
and passive smokers.
 STEROIDS
• CLASSIFICATION
• Some hormones belong to a class of chemicals called steroids. This is because they stimulate metabolic reactions in
the body of cells.
• Examples include; testosterone, oestrogen and progesterone.
• Type
• The process of building large molecules from smaller ones is called anabolism. Eg; building protein from amino acids
or building starch from glucose.
• Steroid hormones that affect or stimulate metabolic reactions in which large molecules are built from smaller ones
are called anabolic steroids.
• Example is testosterone, which causes more protein to be made from amino acids in the muscles. This causes the
muscles to be larger and stronger.
• Steroids in sporting performance
• Some athletes take anabolic steroids to increase their muscle size and strength to be able to train harder for long
periods of time.
• They also increase aggression which could give someone an unfair advantage in a competition
• Effects
• They decrease the ability of the immune system to destroy pathogens
• They can also damage the liver.
 TRIAL QUESTIONS
• Why is heroin described as a highly addictive depressant drug.
• If a heroin addict stops taking the drug, describe what happens to them
• Heroin addiction can lead to crime, social and family problems and the spread of viral diseases. Explain how
theses consequences can affect the society in a negative way.
• Describe how alcohol reaches the brain after it is drunk.
• What effect does alcohol have on the brain
• Explain why a person who has drunk alcohol should not drive
• What are the long term effects of alcohol on the body
• Summarise the effect of alcohol on society and discuss the banning of its use.
• Explain how cigarette smoking is linked to an increased risk of developing; lung cancer, bronchitis and heart
disease.
• Explain how emphysema affects the functioning of the lungs.
 Diabetes
• Definition; a person is said to have diabetes when the control of blood glucose concentration does not work
• Types of Diabetes
• There are two types of diabetes. Type 1 and Type 2.
• Type 1 Diabetes
• This is caused by the death of the cells that secrete insulin. It is not certain exactly what causes this disease but it is thought to be
as a result of the body’s own immune system attacking and destroying the cells in the pancreas that produce insulin.
• This type of diabetes develops when a person is a young child
• Effects
• When a person with type 1 diabetes eats a carbohydrate meal, the blood glucose concentration goes up and stays up because
there is no insulin. This condition is known as hyperglycaemia.
• Symptoms include; blurred vision, feeling of thirst, increased heart and breathing rate.
• On the other hand, not eating carbohydrate for a long time would cause the blood glucose concentration to drop very low. This
condition is known as hypoglycaemia.
• That is because the liver has no storage of glycogen to convert to glucose since insulin wasn’t produced.
• Symptoms include; feeling of tiredness, irrational behaviour and eventually unconsciousness.
• Treatment
• Eating little and often, and avoiding large amounts of carbohydrate can prevent glucose level from fluctuating
• They also need to inject themselves with insulin to reduce blood glucose concentration.