Chapter 5

Self-Understanding:
How We Come to
Understand Ourselves
 Chapter Outline

I. The Nature of the Self

The Nature of the Self
William James defined a basic duality of
the self: it is both the known, “Me,” or self-
concept (our knowledge of who we are),
and the knower, “I,” or self-awareness (the
act of thinking about ourselves).
The Nature of the Self
Tests of human infants suggest that
self-recognition develops at about two
years of age.
A baby getting to know himself
The Nature of the Self

Other developmental studies show

that the concept of self evolves from
being concrete and focused on
observable characteristics to being
more abstract and focused on
psychological characteristics during
the course of childhood and
adolescence.
 The Nature of the Self
• The Functions of the Self

Self-schemas are mental shortcuts

that people use to organize knowledge
about themselves and that influence
what they notice, think about, and
remember about themselves.
 The Nature of the Self
• The Functions of the Self

Self-reference effects are the tendency

for people to remember information
better if they relate it to themselves.
The Nature of the Self

• Cultural Differences in the Definition of

the Self

In many Western cultures, people have an

independent view of the self, while in many
Asian and other non-Western cultures,
people have an interdependent view of the
self.
The Nature of the Self

• Gender Differences in the Definition of

Self

There does appear to be a difference in the

way women and men define themselves in
the United States, with women having more
of an interdependent sense of self than
men.
The Nature of the Self
Despite cultural differences, people are similar in
having some basic self-motives: self-assessment,
self-verification, and self-enhancement.
 Chapter Outline

II. Knowing Ourselves Through

Introspection
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
Intuitively, we recognize that
introspection, the process of looking
inward and examining one’s own
thoughts, feelings, and motives, is one
basis of self-knowledge.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness
Theory

According to self-awareness theory, when

we do focus on ourselves, we compare our
current behavior against internal standards
and values.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness
Theory
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness
Theory

When we become aware of a discrepancy,

we attempt to reduce it by changing our
behavior to match.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness
Theory

Baumeister (1991) has postulated that

because self-awareness can be unpleasant,
we will be motivated to “escape the self” by
engaging in destructive practices or
spiritual practices.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness
Theory

Self-awareness will be pleasant when we

meet or exceed our standards and the state
can motivate us to do so.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do:
Telling More Than We Know

Many of our mental processes occur

outside of awareness -- we are aware of the
final result of our thoughts, but not of the
process by which we got there.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do:
Telling More Than We Know

Introspection may not lead us to the true

causes of our feelings and behavior, but
we’ll manage to convince ourselves it did.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do:
Telling More Than We Know

Diary (Günlük) studies have shown that

although people have strong causal
theories about factors that influence their
moods, these theories are generally
wrong.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• The Consequences of Introspecting
About Reasons

There may be a downside to introspecting

about reasons when making decisions --
namely, we may come up with inaccurate
reasons.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Introspection
• The Consequences of Introspecting
About Reasons

We may convince ourselves that these

incorrect reasons are correct, thereby
changing our attitudes about how we feel
to match our reasons -- an effect known as
reasons-generated attitude change.
 Chapter Outline

III. Knowing Ourselves Through

Observations of Our Own
Behavior
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior

According to Bem’s self-perception

theory, we find out how we feel by
observing what we do.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior

We are likely to infer our feelings from our behavior

when our initial feelings are weak or unclear. And,
we use our behavior to tell us about ourselves
when we decide that we freely chose the behavior.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is the desire to engage

in an activity because we enjoy it or find it
interesting; extrinsic motivation is the
desire to engage in an activity because of
external rewards or pressures.
Motivation to run a marathon
• 26.2 miles of the L.A. Marathon
• A good chunk of them first-timers.
• Without knowing quite what they were
getting into, they've trained for weeks and
pushed their bodies to the limit.
• Their reasons are as varied as L.A.'s
neighborhoods. Some have had the race
on their bucket list; others will run in
remembrance of a loved one, as a weight-
loss regimen or to fulfill a bet.
 Motivation to run a marathon
• Does the inspiration matter? Yes.
Good training is essential, helping runners get through fatigue, pain
and bad weather. But when marathoners hit the wall and the finish
line is still several miles away, they'll have to tap into something
within themselves to keep going.
• An estimated 10% to 15% of L.A. Marathon registrants never
complete the race. This is where motivation comes into play.
• Some motivation comes from within. Known as intrinsic, or internal,
motivation, it's fueled by joy in the activity, like running, or in the
sense of accomplishment that results. Extrinsic, or external,
motivation comes from outside factors, such as wanting a medal or
accolades from friends.
For a marathon, put your money on the intrinsic kind, say
sport psychologists.
 Motivation to run a marathon
• "If [running a marathon] is not intrinsically valuable
— something that's a sense of pride and self-
satisfaction — it's going to be very, very difficult
to do what you have to do to get to the end,"
• "If the bucket list is to impress other people and
get their validation, then it's extrinsic," Dieffenbach
says. "But if it's about you and accomplishing
something in your life, then it's intrinsic.
• Very few things are cut and dried, but at the end
of the day, the majority of the day has to be
intrinsic for something to be sustainable."
   
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation

When we are rewarded for engaging in an

intrinsically motivating activity, we may
underestimate the extent to which our
behavior was caused by intrinsic
motivation. This is known as the
overjustification effect.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
If initial interest in the task is low, as
opposed to high; if the reward is
performance-contingent (based on
quality) rather than task-contingent
(based simply on performance); and by
reminding people that they can do tasks
for intrinsic reasons even if they are also
extrinsically rewarded for engaging in
them.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Understanding Our Emotions: The
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

The two-factor theory of emotion states

that emotion results from first
perceiving physiological arousal and
then finding an explanation or label for
that arousal.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-
Factor Theory of Emotion
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Finding the Wrong Cause:
Misattribution of Arousal

Studies have demonstrated that

misattribution of arousal can occur. When
this happens, we attribute our arousal to
the wrong source and we experience
mistaken or exaggerated emotions.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Interpreting the Social World: Cognitive
Appraisal Theories of Emotion.

Cognitive appraisal theories of emotion

hold that emotions result from people’s
interpretations of events, even in the
absence of any physiological arousal. The
appraisals of the implications of the event
and of the cause of the event are especially
important.
 Knowing Ourselves Through
Observations of Our Own Behavior
• Interpreting the Social World: Cognitive
Appraisal Theories of Emotion.
 Chapter Outline

IV. Using Other People to Know

Ourselves
Using Other People to Know Ourselves

What others tell us about ourselves is a

very important source of self-
knowledge.
Using Other People to Know Ourselves

• Using Other People to Know Ourselves

According to social comparison theory,
when our goal is to find out information
about ourselves, we are likely to engage in
upward social comparison; but when our
goal is to feel good about ourselves, we
are likely to engage in downward social
comparison.
Using Other People to Know Ourselves

• Seeing Ourselves through the Eyes of Others

 Chapter Outline

V. Impression Management: All the

World’s a Stage
Impression Management

• Impression Management: All the

World’s A Stage

Through self-presentation we attempt to

present who we are, or who we want people
to believe we are, to other people.
Impression Management

• Impression Management: All the World’s A

Stage

Impression management occurs when we

consciously or unconsciously orchestrate a
carefully designed presentation of self to fit a
particular goal or need in a social interaction.
Impression Management

• Impression Management: All the

World’s A Stage

Ingratiation is the process whereby people

flatter, praise, and try to make themselves
likable to a person who has higher status.
Impression Management

• Impression Management: All the World’s

A Stage

Self-handicapping is creating obstacles for

ourselves so that if we do poorly on a task, we
can blame circumstances and not our
abilities.