Introduction to sampling and design

 Sampling is a technique used extensively in research studies.

 Sample means a small portion of the populations, it is a small part of entire populations.
 For example, one fruit may be taken as a sample from a basket full of mangoes or apples.

Meaning
 Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis
of which a judgement.
 Sampling is a process of selecting a subset of randomized number of members of the
populations.
 The limited members of the population selected for sampling are called as sampling units.
 STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

Types of Sampling Size of Parameters Budgetary Sampling

Source list
universe unit sample of interest constraint procedure
Stages in sample design

Types of universe
 The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of objects, technically
called the universe, to be studied.
 The universe can be FINITE OR INFINITE.
• In finite universe the number of items is certain, and
• In infinite universe the number of items is infinite, we can not have any idea about the total
number of items.
Stages in sample design
Sampling unit
 A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting sample.

Sampling unit…..
• may be geographical one such as state, district, village, etc.
• May be construction unit such as house, flat, etc.
• May be social unit such as family, club, school, etc.
• May be an individual.

Source list or sampling frame

 it is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.
 It contains the names of all items of a universe.
 It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the population as possible.
Stages in sample design

Size of sample
 This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute a sample.
 The size of sample should neither be excessively large, nor too small.
 It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one which fulfils the requirements of efficiency,
representatives, reliability and flexibility.
Parameters of interest
 In determining the sample design, one must consider the question of the specific population
parameters which are of interest.
 There may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to
make estimates.
Stages in sample design

Budgetary constraint
 Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major impact upon decisions relating
to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
 This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

Sampling procedure
 The researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e., he must decide about the
technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample.
 There are several sample designs out of which the researcher must choose one for his study.
 SAMPLE SIZE
 If the size of the sample is too small, it may not serve to achieve the objectives and if it is too large the
cost may be big and there may be a waste of resources.
 The size must be optimum.
 Technically, the sample size should be large enough to give a confidence interval of desired width and as
such the size of the sample must be chosen by some logical process before sample is taken from the
universe.
1. Nature of universe
2. Number of classes proposed
3. Nature of study
4. Type of sampling
5. Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level
6. Availability of finance
7. Other considerations
Nature of universe
 Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature.
 The universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose,
 If the items are heterogenous, a large sample would be required.

Number of classes proposed

 If many class-group are to be formed,
 A large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to give a
reasonable number of items in each class group.
Nature of study
 If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample should be small.
 For a general survey the size of the sample is considered appropriate in technical surveys.

Types of sampling
 Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size of the sample.
 A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a large, but badly selected sample.

Standard of accuracy and acceptable confidence level

 If the standard of accuracy or the level of precision is to be kept high, we shall require
relatively larger sample.
Availability of finance
 Size of the sample depends upon the amount of money available for the study purpose.

Other considerations
 Nature of units, size of the populations, availability of trained investigators, the conditions
under which the sample is being conducted, the time available for completion of the study are
a few other considerations to which a researchers must pay attention while selecting the size
of the sample.
 TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGN

Probability methods Non-probability method

• Simple random • Convenience sampling

• Systematic sampling • Purposive or judgement
• Cluster sampling sampling
• Stratified sampling • Quota sampling
• Snowball sampling
Simple random sampling
 This sampling technique gives each element an equal and independent chance of being selected.
 An equal means equal probability of selection.
 An independent chance means that the draw of one element will not affect the chances of other
elements being selected.
Systematic sampling
 This method of sampling is an alternative to random sampling.
 Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as students in a class, houses in a
street, telephone directory, customers of a bank and so on.
Cluster sampling
 It means random selection of sampling units consisting of populations elements.
 Each such sampling unit is a cluster of population elements.
 It is divided into two forms: 1. area sampling ; 2. multistage sampling
 Cluster sampling
is divided into
two forms:

Multistage
Area sampling
sampling
Stratified sampling
 It is an improvised sampling over simple random sampling and systematic sampling.
 This sampling will have more statistical efficiency.
 The populations is divided into a specified set of strata such that the members within each
stratum have similar attributes but the members between strata have dissimilar attributes.
Convenience sampling
This is non-probability sampling.
 This sampling also means selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a
teacher may select students in his class.
 This method is also known as accidental sampling because the respondents whom the researcher
meets accidently are included in the sample.
 When a population cannot be defined or a list of population is not available, there is no other
alternative than to use convenient sampling.
purposive or judgement sampling
 This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to some pre-
determined criteria.
 This is also known as judgement sampling.
 It is based on the judgement of the researcher or some expert.
 The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the subjective
judgement of the researcher.
Quota sampling
 This is the form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible
sampling units by traits such as age, social class, etc.
 Quota sampling is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls and leadership surveys
which do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some crude results.
Snowball sampling
 It is a restrictive multi-stage sampling in which initially certain number of sampling units are
randomly selected.
 Additional sampling units are selected based on referral process.
 This sampling techniques may also be used in socio-metric studies.
TYPES OF DATA

Personal
data

Territorial Organisatio
data nal data
1. Personal data
 The personal data relates to persons, individuals with variety of information.
 It may be related to the demographics & socio-economics.
 Personal data also relates to the behavioural variables of individuals such as their attitude,
opinion, practise, intentions, etc.
2. Organisational data
 It is the statistical information relating to the organizations such as companies, body
corporate, charitable trusts, government institutions etc.
 This data is relating to the various characteristics such as origin of the organization, ownership,
objectives, resources, functions, performance, growth etc.
3. Territorial data
The term territory means any geographical area.
Any statistical information related to specific geographical area i.e. called as territorial data.
Such as special divisions, like villages, cities, talukas, states and even nations.
 Sources and methods of data collection

Secondary
primary data
data

Interview Interview Experimental Internal External

Observation Mail survey Questionnaire
method schedules method sources sources

Government
publications

Syndicated
sources

Published
sources
Sources of secondary data
Internal sources
 A company can obtain secondary data from internal sources i.e., from within the company.
 These resources may include sales & purchase records, list of debtors & creditors, advertising,
expenditures, inventory records, previous research reports etc.
 It is desired that firms should maintain their internal sources in a systematic manner.

External sources
 The data collected from sources other than the company's own internal record is known as
external sources.
 There are different types of sources in this method:

I. government publications
II. Syndicated sources
III. Published sources
Methods of primary data collection

Observation
 It is a method that employs vision as its main means of data collection.
 It is watching other persons behaviour as it actually happens without controlling it.

Types of observation
I. Participant/non-participant observation
II. Direct/indirect observation
III. Structured/unstructured observation
IV. Controlled/uncontrolled observation
Interview method
 Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection.
 It may be defined as a two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for
obtaining information relevant to a specific study.
 It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondent’s gestures, facial expressions and pauses, and
his environment.
Types of interview
I. Unstructured or nondirective interview
II. Structured or directive interview
III. Focused interview
IV. Clinical interview
V. Depth interview
VI. Telephone interview
VII. Mail survey
VIII. questionnaire
Mail survey
 The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data.
 This method involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete
them and return them by post.
 This can be used in the case of educated respondents only.

Questionnaire
 This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquires.
 It is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations
and even by governments.
Interview schedule
 It is one method of data collection in which there is a pre-planned interview with starting time
and ending time, pre-decided presenting number of questions before the investigator and
recording of the answers given by the respondent.
Experimental method
 To experiment means to conduct a test with specific treatment.
 It aims at studying the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, by keeping
the other independent variable constant through some type of control.
 Types of Laboratory experiments

experiment  The term of laboratory means a special room which has all infrastructure,
equipment etc.
s  This method is useful not only in physical science research, but also in
social science research.

Laboratory
experiment Field experiments
s  Sometimes there are experiments on the field considering the real life
situation for the purpose of gathering information.

Field
experiment
s