Critical Reasoning - Professor's Guide

The GMAT® / GRE®
Critical Reasoning Section

What is the Critical Reasoning
section about?
1. The question above refers to the paragraph as an “argument”.
Understanding that term is central for the Critical Reasoning section
of GMAT/GRE.
2. The question also asks for an “assumption”: What does it mean for
an argument to depend on an assumption?
These are the kinds of question that one must be able to answer in
order to approach effectively the Critical Reasoning section. The
point of this lesson is to give the students the tools and knowledge read
the passages they will encounter with an appropriate strategy and to
understand precisely each and every type of question that may
appear in this section of the test.
Analysis
 To put it more generally, the Critical Reasoning section is first and
foremost about analyzing arguments. We find ourselves in the
second level of reading comprehension that we mentioned on the first
lesson: analysis.
 When we read a text, we don’t care about its details unless we have to
do something with what we are reading beyond getting the essential
information that it was trying to transmit: when we, for example, want
to have a very clear understanding of what the author’s argument
was. GMAT/GRE are assessing our ability to do precisely this in the
Critical Reasoning section. So we must learn to identify the parts of
the arguments we read: the premises and the conclusion. We must, in
other words, be able to recognize the process of reasoning that leads
the author to her being able to rationally support her conclusion.
 With relation to our image of a building, this means identifying the
quantity of floors that compose it, and differentiating the function that
each of them plays in the overall structure of the building.
 GRE/GMAT will evaluate that you are able to do this both in the
Reading Comprehension section and in the Critical Reasoning section
of the Verbal part of the test.
The structure of arguments
Premise 1
Premise 2
...
Premise n
____________________
Conclusion
Example 1
Find the argument

Example 1
Small dogs make better pets than large dogs.

 There is no argument: that’s just an opinion.
 An argument is about demonstrating the truth of something, so it

implies a reasoning in favor of what is stated.
 A building made out of just one floor is not an argument, yet.
Example 2
Find the argument

Example 2
An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

variety of trees with devastating speed has been found
in the state park. Therefore, the park’s forest is
threatened, and we must use all available resources to
eliminate this pest as quickly as possible.
 Students must learn how to distinguish the parts of arguments: premises
and conclusion, first of all. For this, we can rely on pivot words and/or
markers for conclusions.
 The pivot words we’ve used on past lessons serve to introduce premises:
either premises that add or premises that subtract.
 Markers for conclusions are, for example: thus, therefore, so, hence, etc.
 Naturally, it is not a rule for premises to be preceded by pivot words or

for conclusions to be marked. When we encounter a mere affirmation, it
is crucial that we are correctly following the progression of the
reasoning that the argument is following so that we know what role
the sentence in question is playing. This, in the end, is the only
straightforward method to identify the function of a sentence in an
argument.
Example 2
1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

in the state park.
________________________________________
Therefore, the park’s forest is threatened, and we must
use all available resources to eliminate this pest as
quickly as possible.
 At this point, it is important to point out that arguments are most of the time
complex arguments.
 This means that they have more than one conclusion in them: premises, in the end,
are also sentences that could be true or false, so sometimes authors feel the need to
argue in favor of their premises: such premises will be, then, the conclusion of
their own argument.
 This complexity calls for more attention, so that we are able to distinguish between
internal conclusions—premises with their own arguments—and the external
conclusion of an argument: that which its author is trying to prove with the
argument in its entirety.
 To fully understand this, we need to images: that of a building inside a building, and
that of a staircase. Complex arguments have a complex hierarchy: there are levels, of
which the superior is the general and external conclusion; then follow the premises
that directly relate to such conclusion; the next levels are formed by the sub-premises
which relate directly to one of the premises of the second level. And so on.
The structure of complex arguments
Sub-premise a
…
Sub-premise n
__________
Premise 1 (internal conclusion)
Premise 2
…
Premise n
_________________________________
Conclusion (external)
Example 2

variety of trees with devastating speed has been
found in the state park.
___________________________________
Therefore, the park’s forest is threatened
_____________________________________________
We must use all available resources to eliminate this
pest as quickly as possible.
Diagramming arguments
 This is the most straightforward way to visualize the structure of an
argument.
 We number its sentences and form a tree: on the upper level, the
external conclusion; on the second level, its premises; on the third
level, sub-premises; fourth level: sub-sub-premises. And so on.
 Our last example has a simple structure, with only three levels:
Example 2

Example 2

in the state park.
2. Therefore, the park’s forest is threatened, and
3. we must use all available resources to eliminate this
Example 2
1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain variety of trees

with devastating speed has been found in the state park.
2. Therefore, the park’s forest is threatened, and
3. we must use all available resources to eliminate this
Example 2
1
Example 3
Find the argument

Example 3
The painting Oath of the Horatii shows three brothers

ready to take action, while the women are painted as
passive observers. Also, in action films, such as typical
Westerns, women are cast as victims that must be
protected and saved by men. Art, then, tends to
reinforce gender stereotypes.
Example 3
1. The painting Oath of the Horatii shows three brothers

passive observers.
2. Also, in action films, such as typical Westerns, women
are cast as victims that must be protected and saved by
men.
3. Art, then, tends to reinforce gender stereotypes.
Example 3

ready to take action, while the women are painted as passive
observers.
are cast as victims that must be protected and saved by men.
3. Art, then, tends to reinforce gender stereotypes.
Example 3

passive observers.
are cast as victims that must be protected and saved by
men.
________________________________________
Art, then, tends to reinforce gender stereotypes.
Example 3
1 2
Example 4
Find the argument

Example 4
Humans arrived in the Kaliko Islands about 7,000 years ago,

and within 3,000 years most of the large mammal species that
had lived in the forests of the Kaliko Islands were extinct.
Previous archaeological findings have suggested that early
humans generally relied on both fishing and hunting for food;
since archaeologists have discovered numerous sites in the
Kaliko Islands where the bones of fish were discarded, it is
likely that the humans also hunted the mammals. Furthermore,
researchers have uncovered simple tools, such as stone knives,
that could be used for hunting. The only clear explanation is
that humans caused the extinction of the various mammal
species through excessive hunting.
Example 4
1. Humans arrived in the Kaliko Islands about 7,000 years ago, and
within 3,000 years most of the large mammal species that had lived in
the forests of the Kaliko Islands were extinct.
2. Previous archaeological findings have suggested that early humans
generally relied on both fishing and hunting for food;
3. since archaeologists have discovered numerous sites in the Kaliko
Islands where the bones of fish were discarded,
4. it is likely that the humans also hunted the mammals.
5. Furthermore, researchers have uncovered simple tools, such as stone
knives, that could be used for hunting.
6. The only clear explanation is that humans caused the extinction of
the various mammal species through excessive hunting.
Example 4
generally relied on both fishing and hunting for food;
3. since archaeologists have discovered numerous sites in the Kaliko Islands
where the bones of fish were discarded,
4. it is likely that the humans also hunted the mammals.
6. The only clear explanation is that humans caused the
extinction of the various mammal species through excessive
hunting.
Example 4
1 2 4 5
3
Example 4
generally relied on both fishing and hunting for food.
3. It is likely that the humans also hunted the mammals.
3.1. Archaeologists have discovered numerous sites in the Kaliko Islands where
the bones of fish were discarded.
_________________________________________________________
_The only clear explanation is that humans caused the extinction of the
various mammal species through excessive hunting.
Example 5
Find the argument

Example 5
Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in

Central Plaza has been steadily decreasing while the
popularity of skateboarding has increased dramatically.
Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the
decrease in their business is due to the number of
skateboard users in the plaza. There has also been a
dramatic increase in the amount of litter and vandalism
throughout the plaza. They have thus recommended that
the city prohibit skateboarding in Central Plaza. If
skateboarding is prohibited here, they argue, business in
Central Plaza will return to its previously high levels.
Example 5
1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central

Plaza has been steadily decreasing while the popularity of
skateboarding has increased dramatically.
2. Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the decrease in
their business is due to the number of skateboard users in the
plaza.
3. There has also been a dramatic increase in the amount of litter
and vandalism throughout the plaza.
4. They have thus recommended that the city prohibit
skateboarding in Central Plaza.
5. If skateboarding is prohibited here, they argue, business in
Example 5
1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central

Plaza has been steadily decreasing while the popularity of
skateboarding has increased dramatically.
2. Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the decrease in
their business is due to the number of skateboard users in the
plaza.
3. There has also been a dramatic increase in the amount of litter
and vandalism throughout the plaza.
5. If skateboarding is prohibited here, they argue, business
in Central Plaza will return to its previously high levels.
4. They have thus recommended that the city prohibit
skateboarding in Central Plaza.
Example 5
1 2 3
Example 5
1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central Plaza has been
steadily decreasing while the popularity of skateboarding has increased
dramatically.
2. Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the decrease in their business is
due to the number of skateboard users in the plaza.
3. There has also been a dramatic increase in the amount of litter and vandalism
throughout the plaza.
________________________________________________________________
If skateboarding is prohibited here business in Central Plaza will return to its
previously high levels.
__________________________________________________________________
The city should prohibit skateboarding in Central Plaza.
Evaluation
 This is the third level of reading comprehension that we talked about in our first
lesson and, though it will be more important for the Essay section (fourth lesson), it is
already relevant for Critical Reasoning.
 Once you know how the author’s argument is built, once you recognize its parts and
the function that each of them plays, you then can go on to consider how well it is
built by considering both the strength of the evidence she offers and the validity of
her reasoning. Good arguments are made out of good premises and good reasonings
that serve to adequately support a conclusion. You have to be able to distinguish a
good inference from a bad one.
 With relation to our image, this means that you go beyond the quantity and the
functions of the floors to consider their quality: both individually (floor by floor) and
structurally (from the floors below to the floors on the top: from premises to
conclusion).
 GRE/GMAT will ask you to this almost everywhere in the Verbal part of the test, but
the ability to evaluate an argument will be the key for the Essay section of the test.
 What matters here is that in the CR section, you will be asked to
evaluate the arguments given in some form: each type of question
asks you to do some sort of argument evaluation.
 Instead of learning how to evaluate arguments from zero, today we
will concentrate on knowing what each type of questions asks us to
do. This is exactly what we are going to concentrate on next.
A strategy for Critical Reasoning
Step 1. Identify the question type
 Unlike in the Reading Comprehension section, it is actually useful and
necessary to read the question first when facing CR passages: you will only
be asked one question per passage after all, and each type of question will ask
you to focus on some specific thing regarding the argument you’ll read, so it is
useful to know what the question asks you to do in order to know what kind
of analysis you must perform of the argument you will read.
 There are 6 main types of question for the CR section of GRE/GMAT. They are:
1. Find an assumption
2. Strengthen the conclusion
3. Explain
4. Draw an inference
5. Weaken the conclusion
6. Boldface questions
 We will look at each type of question individually. The point is that
we learn to identify exactly what each question asks you to do
regarding the argument you are facing.
 In other words, each type of question asks you to look for something
very specific in the argument: to analyze in search for something
specific.
 This means that you must bear in mind that what you do in the next
step of our strategy depends wholly on what question type you find in
the first step.
 We will tackle our explanation of steps 1 and 2 at the same time, then.
1.1. Find an assumption
1. Which of the following is an assumption on which the argument
depends?
2. The explanation offered above assumes that…
3. Which of the following is an assumption made in drawing the

conclusion above?
4. The argument relies on the assumption that…
5. The conclusión drawn above is based on the assumption that…

 Questions that ask you to find an assumption imply a preceding argument in
which there is a gap: an unjustified jump between premises and conclusion.
A missing premise, to say it briefly.
 That is precisely what an assumption is: some premises that is left implicit,
that is not explicitly stated in the argument, but which is necessary for the
argument to be a good argument.
 Arguments with missing assumed premises are, as they are stated, invalid: the
conclusion is not well supported by the premises given. They are bad
inferences because the conclusion requires more information than the one we
have available to be correctly supported.
 In other words, the arguments you’ll be asked to analyze for this type of
questions have a shift in focus in them that introduces new information in the
conclusion that is beyond the information stated in the premises. This implies
that what is said in the conclusion is not fully demonstrated by the information
given.
 These questions, then, ask you to add a premise that fills the gap: to correct the
inference by re-connecting the conclusion with the
 These questions, then, ask you to add a premise that fills the gap: to
correct the inference by re-connecting the conclusion with the
premises by finding the one that adds the information that is
missing but needed to reach the conclusion by adding it to the
information already available.
 It is essential, for these questions, to be particularly alert to
vocabulary: to answer them correctly, read carefully the subject
about which the conclusion affirms something and that which is
asserted of it. It is there that you will find the information missing:
none of the premises given in the argument will be either about
such subject or about such predicate.
 The missing like that connects either the subject or the predicate from
the conclusion with the information from the given premises will be in
the answers: you just have to look for it in one of them.
 For these questions, then, the most important thing is to identify
correctly the conclusion and to understand it word by word: it is
there, in the details, that you will find the missing assumption.
Example
1. The deceased was assassinated inside the room.
2. The room has no windows and only one door.
3. The door was not forced.
___________________________________________________
The killer must have been an acquaintance of the
deceased.
Find an assumption
1. The deceased was killed inside the apartment
2. The apartment has no windows and only one door.
3. The door was not forced.
ASSUMPTION: there is no possible scenario were
she may have given a stranger access to the
apartment
_____________________________________________
The killer must have been an acquaintance of the
deceased.
Example
1. Remains of ammonium have been found in Mars.
2. There are only two possible sources of ammonia:
volcanic activity or cellular life.
___________________________________________________
There must be life in Mars.
Find an assumption
1. Remains of ammonium have been found in Mars.
2. There are only two possible sources of ammonia:
volcanic activity or cellular life.
ASSUMPTION: There is no volcanic activity in
Mars.
ASSUMPTION: The remains of ammonium couldn’t
have been brought to Mars by any means.
_____________________________________________
There must be life in Mars.
Example
1. All opiate-based painkillers are addictive.
___________________________________________________
The drug Euporipham is addictive.
Find an assumption
1. All opiate-based painkillers are addictive.
ASSUMPTION: The drug Euporipham is an
opiate-based painkiller.
___________________________________________________
The drug Euporipham is addictive.
Example
Example 2

Step 2. Analyze the argument
Example 2

___________________________________
The park’s forest is threatened.
_____________________________________________
We must use all available resources to eliminate this pest as quickly as
possible.
Find an assumption
Example 2

ASSUMPTION: the invasive beetle kills the main variety of

trees that exists in the state park’s forest.
_____________________________________________
The park’s forest is threatened.
_____________________________________________
We must use all available resources to eliminate this pest as quickly as
possible.
Example
Example 5
Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in

Central Plaza has been steadily decreasing while the
popularity of skateboarding has increased dramatically.
Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the
decrease in their business is due to the number of
skateboard users in the plaza. There has also been a
dramatic increase in the amount of litter and vandalism
throughout the plaza. They have thus recommended that
the city prohibit skateboarding in Central Plaza. If
skateboarding is prohibited here, they argue, business in
Example 5
1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central Plaza has been
steadily decreasing while the popularity of skateboarding has increased
dramatically.
2. Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the decrease in their business is
due to the number of skateboard users in the plaza.
3. There has also been a dramatic increase in the amount of litter and vandalism
throughout the plaza.
________________________________________________________________
If skateboarding is prohibited here business in Central Plaza will return to its
previously high levels.
__________________________________________________________________
Find an assumption
Example 5
1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central Plaza has been steadily decreasing
while the popularity of skateboarding has increased dramatically.
2. Many Central Plaza store owners believe that the decrease in their business is due to the
number of skateboard users in the plaza.
3. There has also been a dramatic increase in the amount of litter and vandalism throughout the
plaza.
ASSUMPTION: the cause behind the reduction in the number of shoppers in Central
Plaza is the increase in the amount of litter and vandalism.
ASSUMPTION: the skateboarders are behind the increase in amount of litter and the
vandalism.
________________________________________________________________
If skateboarding is prohibited here business in Central Plaza will return to its previously high
levels.
__________________________________________________________________
Example
Example 6
Q: The argument above depends logically upon which of

the following assumptions?
Example 6
In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses,

and other health care workers will increase significantly
worldwide. Even so, the average compensation received
by such professionals will not decline but rather is
likely to increase. This is due, at least, partly to the fact
that the median age of the world’s population will
increase steadily in this same period of time.
Example 6

Example 6
1. In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses, and

other health care workers will increase significantly worldwide.
2. Even so, the average compensation received by such
professionals will not decline but rather is likely to increase.
3. This is due, at least, partly to the fact that the median age of
the world’s population will increase steadily in this same period
of time.
Example 6
1. In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses, and other
health care workers will increase significantly worldwide.
2. Even so, the average compensation received by such
professionals will not decline but rather is likely to increase.
3. This is due, at least, partly to the fact that the median age of the
world’s population will increase steadily in this same period of
time.
Example 6

other health care workers will increase significantly
worldwide.
2. The median age of the world’s population will increase
steadily in this same period of time.
__________________________________________________
The average compensation received by such professionals will
not decline but rather is likely to increase.
Example 6
Step 3. Predict an answer

 When trying to predict any kind of Critical Reasoning answer, it is essential that
you understand exactly what the conclusion is stating:
 A prediction about the future?
 A proposal for a course of action?
 A generalization about a particular set of things?
 A comparison between two (or more) things?
 Knowing this will help you to identify the information that you have to look for
in the correct answer choice.
 This example proposes a prediction about the future regarding the average
compensation received by health professionals: it will increase.
 The main reason given for it is that there will be more old people in
percentage terms.
 It is clear that what is missing here is the causal link between being more old
people and health professionals making more money.
 The sentence that gets the closest to doing so will be the correct answer choice.
Example 6
Step 4. Evaluate each answer choice to complete

the argument
Example 6
Example 6
Example 6

worldwide.
ASSUMPTION: As a group, older people receive more
attention from health care workers than do younger
people.
__________________________________________________
Example
Example 7
Q: Which of the following is an assumption on which the

argument depends?
Example 7
Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that

involves selling similar seats for different prices depending on
factors such as the type of customer and the number of days
between the purchase and the flight. Generally, business
customers and customers purchasing tickets at the last minute
pay more than average price for a seat. Air Macaria, however,
sells all seats for the same price. Therefore, when traveling
routes served by Air Macaria and an airline that uses tiered
pricing, business travelers purchasing tickets at the last minute
save money by flying Air Macaria.
Example 7

Example 7
1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy

that involves selling similar seats for different prices depending
on factors such as the type of customer and the number of days
between the purchase and the flight.
2. Generally, business customers and customers purchasing
tickets at the last minute pay more than average price for a seat.
3. Air Macaria, however, sells all seats for the same price.
4. Therefore, when traveling routes served by Air Macaria and
an airline that uses tiered pricing, business travelers purchasing
tickets at the last minute save money by flying Air Macaria.
Example 7
1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that

involves selling similar seats for different prices depending on factors
such as the type of customer and the number of days between the
purchase and the flight.
2. Generally, business customers and customers purchasing
tickets at the last minute pay more than average price for a seat.
4. Therefore, when traveling routes served by Air Macaria
and an airline that uses tiered pricing, business travelers
purchasing tickets at the last minute save money by flying
Air Macaria.
Example 7
1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that

involves selling similar seats for different prices depending on
factors such as the type of customer and the number of days between
the purchase and the flight.
2 Generally, business customers and customers purchasing
tickets at the last minute pay more than average price for a
seat.
__________________________________________________
When traveling routes served by Air Macaria and an airline
that uses tiered pricing, business travelers purchasing tickets at
the last minute save money by flying Air Macaria.
Example 7

 What’s missing here is information that renders plausible the
comparison of prices between Air Macaria and the other airlines: if,
for example, Air Macaria prices were on average more expensive
than those of other airlines, even without “tiered pricing” they
could be more expensive for last minute business class tickets.
 In other words, the conclusion proposes a comparison between the
prices of Air Macaria and other airlines, so we need information that
builds that comparison: we are not given any in the argument.
 That’s what we have to look for in the answer choices.
 The conclusion here is simply a general statement about relative
prices on the basis of a comparison: by knowing this, we know that
we have to look for the elements on the basis of which that
comparison can be established.
Example 7

the argument
Example 7
A. Customers who purchase tickets more than three weeks in advance spend less,
on average, per ticket, than customers who purchase tickets less than three
weeks in advance.
B. Airlines that use tiered pricing serve many more routes than airlines that do
not.
C. When flying a route that includes both Air Macaria and an airline that uses
tiered pricing, a traveler is subject to the different pricing strategies of the
airlines for each portion of the trip.
D. The average price of a ticket on any given route on Air Macaria is equal to the
average price on the same route of a ticket offered by an airline that uses
tiered pricing.
E. More business travelers fly on airlines that used tiered pricing than on airlines
that do not.
Example 7
Correct answer is D: we’re looking for information that connects the comparison present in the conclusion
(those traveling with Air Macaria will pay less than those traveling with other airlines) with the information
from the premises (that those traveling in business and last-minute pay more).
(A) Adds irrelevant information: we don’t need a comparison between early ticket buyers and late buyers.
We already have that implied in premise 1.
(B) Adds irrelevant information: we don’t care about the routes served, since that doesn’t affect the
comparison we are looking for.
(C) Adds irrelevant information: we need a comparison between prices for independent routes, and all (C)
gives us is a paraphrase of a fact stated in premise 2 and then it even contradicts premise 3.
(D) Gives us what we’re looking for: a direct comparison between the average prices of Air Macaria and
other airlines, since only if the prices of Air Macaria are generally lower that those of other airlines can
we conclude that, since it doesn’t use “tiered pricing” (premise 3) they will be cheaper compared to
when other airlines use “tiered pricing”.
(E) Adds irrelevant information.
Example 7
1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that involves selling similar
seats for different prices depending on factors such as the type of customer and the
number of days between the purchase and the flight.
2. Generally, business customers and customers purchasing tickets at the last minute pay
more than average price for a seat.
ASSUMPTION: The average price of a ticket on any given route on Air Macaria is equal
to the average price on the same route of a ticket offered by an airline that uses tiered
pricing.
______________________________________________________________________
When traveling routes served by Air Macaria and an airline that uses tiered pricing,
business travelers purchasing tickets at the last minute save money by flying Air
Macaria.
Example 7

worldwide.
ASSUMPTION: As a group, older people receive more
attention from health care workers than do younger
people.
__________________________________________________
 One thing that has to be pointed out here is that most of the arguments we will
find out in the CR section of GMAT/GRE will make either one of three
mistakes:
 Shift of scope: the argument will suddenly introduce a new term or idea that wasn’t
mentioned before and isn’t connected to the rest of the argument
 Mistaking correlation for causation: just because two things happen at the same time
doesn’t mean that one caused the other
 Flawed plans and predictions: when facing plans or predictions, we have to look for
unintended consequences of the plans in question, or any important factors that weren’t
accounted for when planning, or maybe a self-defeating feature in the proposed course
of action. The usual stuff that go wrong with plans and predictions about the future.
 For “Find an assumption” questions you are not asked to identify the flaw in
the argument: you already know its flawed. Nevertheless, it is still helpful to
know what could be wrong with it so that it is easier to correct it: correct
answer choices will either close the gap produced by a shift of scope;
establish the causal connection in a correlation; or add missing
information that shows why a plan or prediction isn’t flawed.
 The key to answer correctly, then, is to find out what is wrong with
the argument while reading and analyzing it: the correct answer
will correct the flaw.
 Once you know what is missing, you’ll be able to eliminate the
wrong answer choices: they will all be irrelevant.
 The evaluation you are asked to do is quite straightforward: you
know in advance that the argument, as it is given to you, is flawed:
it lacks a premise without which it the conclusion cannot be
reached. All you have to do is find it in the answer choices.
1.2. Strengthen the conclusion
1. Which of the following, if true, would better support the
argument?
2. Which of the following, if true, provides additional support

for the contention above?
3. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the

researcher’s hypothesis?
 These questions work pretty much in the same way as “find an
assumption” questions: they basically ask you to add a premise that helps
to reach the conclusion with the information given.
 There are, nevertheless, two thing that make them differ from the former:
 Though the premise you will be asked to add may indeed be an assumption that
must be added to make the argument valid, sometimes the information missing
may be more or less secondary to the argument’s validity: as stated, the argument
may already work as it is given to you, and you may only be asked to add some
new information that makes it even better.
 The second, more important difference, is that wrong answer choices are wrong
because of three reasons: not only because they may be irrelevant, but also
because they could be weakening instead of strengthening the argument (by
contradicting the information given in the premises, for example), and
crucially, because they may not strengthen the argument enough or least not
as much as the correct answer does.
• It is this last possibility that we have to be especially careful about when facing this type of
questions.
Example
Example 8
Q: Which of the following, if true, is further evidence that

using local technicians will help MP Tech achieve its goal?
Example 8
When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often

shipped to a central location for service, then shipped
back when the service is complete. In order to reduce
the risk of additional problems caused by jostling in
transit, MP Tech has hired part-time technicians to
provide maintenance service on MP Tech laptops in
cities across the country. Providing local technicians
costs MP Tech approximately the same amount as
paying for shipping as well as employing a large
centralized staff.
Example 8

Example 8
1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often

shipped to a central location for service, then shipped back
when the service is complete.
2. In order to reduce the risk of additional problems caused
by jostling in transit, MP Tech has hired part-time technicians
to provide maintenance service on MP Tech laptops in cities
across the country.
3. Providing local technicians costs MP Tech approximately
the same amount as paying for shipping as well as employing
a large centralized staff.
Example 8
1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often shipped

to a central location for service, then shipped back when the service
is complete.
3. Providing local technicians costs MP Tech approximately the
same amount as paying for shipping as well as employing a large
centralized staff.
2. In order to reduce the risk of additional problems caused by jostling
in transit, MP Tech has hired part-time technicians to provide
maintenance service on MP Tech laptops in cities across the country.
Example 8
1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often shipped to a

central location for service, then shipped back when the service is
complete.
2. Providing local technicians costs MP Tech approximately the same
amount as paying for shipping as well as employing a large centralized
staff.
3. MP Tech has hired part-time technicians to provide maintenance service
on MP Tech laptops in cities across the country.
_________________________________________________________
This will reduce the risks of additional problems caused by jostling in
transit.
Example 8

Example 8
 Like other arguments we’ve read, and like most of the arguments that
students will encounter in CR, the point of this argument is a plan (hiring
local part-time technicians) that predicts some positive effects
regarding an issue (that of possible damages caused by jostling on
laptops that are shipped for maintenance).
 Here, much like in “Find an assumption” questions, all we need to do is
find information that connects the desired effect with the already available
information.
 The point is to avoid damage while in transit: we now know that
computers will not need to travel too far, since they will be sent to
local technicians. We could close the argument here, because it is quite
reasonable to conclude that there is less opportunity for damage.
 What we need to look for in the answers is some additional information
that could strengthen this already quite reasonable argument: something
that makes explicit how computers will avoid damage while in local
transit.
Example 8

the argument
Example 8
Which of the following, if true, is further evidence that using local technicians will help MP
Tech achieve its goal?
A. Moving maintenance services away from a centralized location makes it less

economical to provide phone support.
B. Customers who take their laptop computers to local technicians pack their
computers extremely carefully to avoid causing further problems in transit.
C. MP Tech laptop computers are unique, so their technicians require special
training.
D. Purchasers of MP Tech laptop computers tend to use their machines more than
average, and they require more frequent service than purchasers of other
computer brands.
E. Many of the local technicians MP Tech has hired have experience working as
technicians at MP Tech’s centralized location.
Example 8
Example 8
1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often shipped to a central location

for service, then shipped back when the service is complete.
2. Providing local technicians costs MP Tech approximately the same amount as paying
for shipping as well as employing a large centralized staff.
3. MP Tech has hired part-time technicians to provide maintenance service on MP Tech
laptops in cities across the country.
ADDITIONALLY: Customers who take their laptop computers to local
technicians pack their computers extremely carefully to avoid causing further
problems in transit.
_________________________________________________________
This will reduce the risks of additional problems caused by jostling in transit.
Example
Example 9
Q: Which of the following statements, if true, would most

strengthen the argument?
Example 9
Any college football player who uses steroids should

be banned from competition. The nation agency with
the responsibility to preserve the natural competitive
balance between player enforces rules specifically
mandating that no player be allowed to use drugs to
gain a competitive advantage. Studies show that
steroid users tend to have much greater strength and
weight than non-users.
Example 9

Example 9
1. Any college football player who uses steroids should be

banned from competition.
2. The nation agency with the responsibility to preserve the
natural competitive balance between player enforces rules
specifically mandating that no player be allowed to use drugs
to gain a competitive advantage.
3. Studies show that steroid users tend to have much greater
strength and weight than non-users.
Example 9
1. Any college football player who uses steroids should be

banned from competition.
2. The nation agency with the responsibility to preserve the natural
competitive balance between player enforces rules specifically
mandating that no player be allowed to use drugs to gain a
competitive advantage.
3. Studies show that steroid users tend to have much greater
strength and weight than non-users.
Example 9

competitive balance between player enforces rules specifically mandating
that no player be allowed to use drugs to gain a competitive advantage.
2. Studies show that steroid users tend to have much greater strength and
____________________________________________________________
Any college football player who uses steroids should be banned from
competition.
Example 9

Example 9
 This argument, though reasonable as it stands, has a small jump between

premises and conclusion. It’s almost invisible, because it is too obvious:
 The argument is about a proposal to ban players that use steroids.
 The main cited reason is that there is an official interest to preserve the “natural
competitive balance” in the game, and since steroid users gain advantage
artificially they are breaking such balance.
 Steroid users, we are told, are faster and heavier than non-users.
 We know that, in football, being faster and heavier is an advantage: but the
argument doesn’t say so anywhere.
 There’s the gap: it is a small shift in focus that is easily corrected by making it
explicit that such characteristics are a competitive advantage and, therefore,
players that gain them through artificial means should be banned.
 As you see, this argument also works much in the same way as a “Find
an assumption” argument. The difference lies in that the gap is somewhat
smaller, and thus—like in the last example—it could be more difficult to
detect.
Example 9

the argument
Example 9
Which of the followings statements, if true, would most strengthen the argument?
A. Users of steroids often suffer from acne, extreme nervousness, and reduced sexual
potency
B. Increased strength is more useful than increased weight to college football
players.
C. Superior strength and weight give college football players a significant
competitive advantage.
D. Steroid use is much more prevalent in college football than in college
baseball.
E. Random drug testing of athletes has been shown to be effective in the
detection of drug use by athletes.
Example 9
Example 9

competitive balance between player enforces rules specifically mandating
that no player be allowed to use drugs to gain a competitive advantage.
2. Studies show that steroid users tend to have much greater strength and
ADDITIONALLY: Superior strength and weight give college
football players a significant competitive advantage.
____________________________________________________________
Any college football player who uses steroids should be banned from
competition.
1.3. Explain
1.Which of the following, if true, most helps to explain
the apparent discrepancy or paradox?
2.Which of the following, if true, would best help

explain how x might produce y?
 Explain questions work much in the same way as “Strengthen the
conclusion” questions: you simply have to add a premise, some
information that is missing but may be more or less essential for the
validity of the argument as it stands.
 What’s special about the arguments that come before “Explain”
questions is that they will always be about causes and effects:
arguments will always contain a description of an event (the
effect) whose cause is not quite clear in the way the argument is
stated. So, while the result is known, it is unclear how it comes to be.
 The point of this questions is that you must find the explanation
for such event in the answers.
 The premise you have to add, then, is a very specific type of premise:
it must be one that dissolves the apparent obscurity of the matter
by actually connecting causally the correlation that’s established
between the events present in the argument.
 The passage we will read, in fact, are not exactly arguments: they are
not about supporting the truth of a conclusion (either an general
assertion or a prediction, as we’ve so far encountered) on the basis of
some information that supports its as evidence.
 The passages we’ll read are merely about explaining why
something happens.
 So, while we can treat them as if they were arguments in which the
conclusion is the assertions that states what is causing the events, it is
crucial that we clarify the nature of the arguments: they are all
about explaining why something, more or less paradoxical,
happens or happened the way it does or did.
Example
Example 10
Q: Which of the following, if true, would best help explain how

the weakness of the Sarade might result in the observed effect?
Example 10
A study separated all of the Saradian firms in a

certain industry into two groups. The first group
consisted of firms that have the largest proportion of
clients outside of Saradia, and the second consists of
those with the smallest proportion of such clients.
The first group showed a much larger increase in
sales over the five-year span in which in the firms
were studied. The effect was attributed to the
weakness of the Sarade, the currency of Saradia.
Example 10

Example 11
1. A study separated all of the Saradian firms in a certain

industry into two groups.
2. The first group consisted of firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia, and the second
consists of those with the smallest proportion of such
clients.
3. The first group showed a much larger increase in sales
over the five-year span in which in the firms were studied.
4. The effect was attributed to the weakness of the Sarade,
the currency of Saradia.
Example 11
1. A study separated all of the Saradian firms in a certain industry

into two groups.
2. The first group consisted of firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia, and the second consists
of those with the smallest proportion of such clients.
3. The first group showed a much larger increase in sales
over the five-year span in which in the firms were studied.
4. The effect was attributed to the weakness of the Sarade, the
currency of Saradia.
Example 10
EFFECT
A much larger increase in sales for firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia, compared to those with
the smallest proportion of such clients, over the five-year span in
which in the firms were studied.
CLAIMED CAUSE
The weakness of the Sarade, the currency of Saradia.
1. FACT: A much larger increase in sales for firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia, compared to those with the
smallest proportion of such clients, over the five-year span in which in
the firms were studied.
2. FACT: The Sarade, the currency of Saradia, is weak.
____________________________________________________________
The reason behind such an increase in sales for firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia was the weakness of the Sarade.
Example 10

Example 10
 The argument gives us an effect and a cause, and all we are asked to do is to
explain how the claimed cause actually works for the known effect.
 We do not need to find the cause, since we already know it: the question clearly
states that, even if we could imagine some other better explanation, we must stick
with what the argument says: suppose the cause is in fact the weakness of the
Sarade and find in the answers the information that would best help establish
that as the actual cause for the increase in sales for firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside Saradia.
 Such information must actually establish a link between the weakness of the
Sarade and the increase in sales for such firms: that was not given to us in the
argument.
 All we have is a correlation between two known facts—both things did happen
simultaneously: we need information that turns that correlation into a causal
explanation.
 The information should explain how the weakness of a currency lies behind
the fact that national firms that concentrate on foreign trade have better sales
than those who concentrate on local trade.
Example 10

the argument
Example 10
Which of the following, if true, would best help explain how the weakness of the Sarade migh
result in the observed effect?
A. Each year in the five-year span, the Sarade got weaker relative to the Euro.
B. When a country’s currency is weak, goods sold by firms in that country are
relatively inexpensive to customers who reside in countries with stronger
currencies.
C. The weakness of the Sarade caused Saradia’s national bank to raise interest rates,
making it more expensive for Saradian firms to raise money to fund expansion.
D. The Sarade is the main currency of the region, so fluctuations in exchange rates
affect several neighboring countries in addition to Saradia.
E. The firms involved in the study were not notified that the study was taking place
until after the five-year span was complete.
Example 10
1. FACT: A much larger increase in sales for firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia, compared to those with the
smallest proportion of such clients, over the five-year span in which in
the firms were studied.
2. FACT: The Sarade, the currency of Saradia, is weak.
3. RULE: When a country’s currency is weak, goods sold by firms in
that country are relatively inexpensive to customers who reside in
countries with stronger currencies.
____________________________________________________________
The reason behind such an increase in sales for firms that have the largest
proportion of clients outside of Saradia was the weakness of the Sarade.
Example
Example 11
Q: Which of the following, if true, best explains the

apparent contradiction described above?
Example 11
Music industry executives have claimed that online

file-sharing networks are significantly hurting their
business because potential consumers are getting
music for free that they would otherwise purchase.
However, after file-sharing networks started to
become popular, CD sales actually increased.
Example 11

Example 11
1. Music industry executives have claimed that online file-

sharing networks are significantly hurting their business
2. because potential consumers are getting music for free
that they would otherwise purchase.
3. However, after file-sharing networks started to become
popular, CD sales actually increased.
Example 11
1. Music industry executives have claimed that online file-

sharing networks are significantly hurting their business
2. because potential consumers are getting music for free
that they would otherwise purchase.
3. However, after file-sharing networks started to become
popular, CD sales actually increased.
Example 11
CLAIMED EFFECT: Online file-sharing networks are significantly

hurting the music industry business.
CLAIMED CAUSE:
Potential consumers are getting music for free that they would otherwise
purchase.
ACTUAL EFFECT: CD sales have actually increased.

Example 11
FACT: Potential consumers are getting music for free that they would
otherwise purchase.
_________________________________________________________
Online file-sharing networks are significantly hurting the music
industry business.
HOWEVER:
FACT: CD sales have increased.

Example 11

Example 11
 The argument initially gives us a claim by the music industry executives

against online free file-sharing: they claim that it has caused damage to
the music industry.
 But then we are given a counter-claim: CD sales have actually increased.
 What we need to do is explain why, even when there music is accessible
for free online, those sales have increased.
 In other words: we must explain why online-file sharing has produced
an unpredicted effect that does not agree with the prediction of the music
industry executives.
 In the answers we must search for the cause behind such unexpected
effect.
 When we are given arguments that have a counter-claim, like this one, we
need to be especially careful in eliminating the answers that help explain
the original claim that is being refuted (in this case, the one made by
the music industry executives).
Example 11

the argument
Example 11
Which of the following, if true, best explains the apparent contradiction described above?
A. File-sharing networks carry a more complete variety of music than most

traditional music stores.
B. The few people using file-sharing networks already purchased more music
than most people.
C. Many people prefer to store their music as computer files rather than
maintain large CD collections.
D. Many consumers have purchased music by artists they discovered through
file-sharing networks.
E. Music available on file-sharing networks is of the same audio quality as
music on commercially produced CDs
Example 11
Example 11
otherwise purchase.
_________________________________________________________
Online file-sharing networks are significantly hurting the music
industry business.
HOWEVER:
Many consumers have purchased music by artists they discovered
through file-sharing networks.
_________________________________________________________
CD sales have increased.
Example 11
otherwise purchase.
HOWEVER: Many consumers have purchased music by artists
they discovered through file-sharing networks.
____________________________________________________________
Contrary to expectations, CD sales have increased.
1.4. Draw an inference
1. The statements above, if true, best support which of the
following assertions
2. Which of the following conclusions can properly be drawn

from the information above?
3. What can most properly be inferred from the (or some specific)
information above?
4. Which of the following hypotheses is best supported by the

statements given?
 Since we already know what an inference is from past lessons, we already
know what we are being asked to do: to arrive to the conclusion that is
best supported by the information given in the passage.
 There will be two types of “Draw an inference” question:
 Those that ask you to draw the conclusion: you will be given an incomplete
argument, without any conclusion, and your task will be to select from the possible
answers the choice that is best supported by the information in the passage.
 Those that ask you to infer something based on some specific information from the
passage: you may be given an argument that’s complete as it stands, with nothing
missing, and your task will be to take some bit of the given argument as premise for a
new argument that will have as conclusion one of the answer choices.
 In any case, the way to answer correctly these questions is to remember
what distinguishes a good inference from a bad one: the best inference is
the one that is wholly supported by the information that you have in the
passage.
 Wrong answer choices will all ask you to assume something that is not
stated in the passage, to add new information.
Example
Example 12
Q: The information above most strongly supports which of

the following conclusions?
Example 12
The school board has responded to the new school

lunch guidelines by replacing fries with fruit in a
standard meal option that used to consist of a
hamburger, fries, and milk. However, the guidelines
specifically require that vegetables, not fruit, be
included in every meal.
Example 12

Example 12
1. The school board has responded to the new school lunch

guidelines by replacing fries with fruit in a standard
meal option that used to consist of a hamburger, fries,
and milk.
2. However, the guidelines specifically require that
vegetables, not fruit, be included in every meal.
Example 12
1. The school board has responded to the new school lunch guidelines by
replacing fries with fruit in a standard meal option that used to consist
of a hamburger, fries, and milk.
2. However, the guidelines specifically require that vegetables, not fruit,
be included in every meal.
____________________________________________________________
Example 12

Example 12
 The information is clear: the school is giving fruit but the guidelines
require vegetables, not fruit.
 We cannot conclude anything about quantity or quality: any
conclusion must relate to the guidelines and how the school follows
them by giving fruit instead of vegetables.
Example 12

the argument
Example 12
The information above most strongly supports which of the following conclusions?
A.Fruit provides just as much health value to students as

vegetables.
B.Students are more likely to eat fruit than vegetables.
C.The school board is not following the new school guidelines.
D.The school board is responsible for the health of the student
population.
E. The new school lunch guidelines are unnecessarily strict.
Example 12
Example 12
1. The school board has responded to the new school lunch guidelines by
replacing fries with fruit in a standard meal option that used to consist
of a hamburger, fries, and milk.
2. However, the guidelines specifically require that vegetables, not fruit,
be included in every meal.
____________________________________________________________
The school board is not following the new school guidelines.

Example
Example 13
Q: The information given, if accurate, most strongly

supports which of the following?
Example 13
Frobnia’s economy relies on two major industries.

The oil fields in south Frobnia allow the country to
export petroleum and the natural landmarks in the
north attract hundreds of thousands of tourists each
year. Tourism employs more than one-third of
working Frobnians, and the oil fields employ less
than half as many. However, about half of the
population of Frobnia lives in the south.
Example 13

Example 13
1. Frobnia’s economy relies on two major industries.

2. The oil fields in south Frobnia allow the country to
export petroleum and the natural landmarks in the
north attract hundreds of thousands of tourists each
year.
3. Tourism employs more than one-third of working
Frobnians, and the oil fields employ less than half as
many.
4. However, about half of the population of Frobnia lives
in the south.
Example 13

2. The oil fields in south Frobnia allow the country to export petroleum
and the natural landmarks in the north attract hundreds of thousands
of tourists each year.
3. Tourism employs more than one-third of working Frobnians, and the
oil fields employ less than half as many.
4. However, about half of the population of Frobnia lives in the south.
____________________________________________________________
Example 13
Frobnia
South North
Economy
Oil fields: >16.5% Natural landmarks: <33%
Population
c. 50% x
Example 13

Example 13
 This is a common type of argument for “Draw an inference”

questions: one that establishes percentages and relations between
things.
 When this appears, the key is to clarify the percentages and the things
to which they belong, just like we did in the table above.
 The answer will be there in the table: we will not be able to predict
what may be concluded, but we know that whatever the correct
answer is it will have to be completely supported by the table.
 These cases, then, ask for a careful evaluation of each answer choice
on the basis of the percentages from the table.
Example 13

the argument
Example 13
The information given, if accurate, most strongly supports which of the following?
A.To remain fully staffed, tourism-related companies in Frobnia must

recruit in the south.
B.Most of the people in Frobnia who are not employed live in the south.
C.Many employed Frobnians in the south work for petroleum-related
companies apart from the oil fields, such as refineries.
D.A higher proportion of Frobnians working in the north work in one of
Frobnia’s two major industries than the proportion of Frobnians in the
south who do.
E. Frobnia’s oil fields are not a major tourist attraction, but a small number
of visitors include the oil fields as part of their travel.
Example 13
Example 13

2. The oil fields in south Frobnia allow the country to export petroleum
and the natural landmarks in the north attract hundreds of thousands
of tourists each year.
3. Tourism employs more than one-third of working Frobnians, and the
oil fields employ less than half as many.
4. However, about half of the population of Frobnia lives in the south.
____________________________________________________________
A higher proportion of Frobnians working in the north work in one of
Frobnia’s two major industries than the proportion of Frobnians in the
south who do.
1.5. Weaken the conclusion
1. Which of the following, if true, would most undermine the conclusion
in the argument?
2. Which of the following, if true, most threatens the plan’s likelihood of

success
3. Which of the following, if true, most seriously jeopardizes the

explanation given above?
4. The argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it gives

reason to believe that it is likely that…
5. Which of the following, if true, would point to a possible flaw in the

plan presented above?
 Until now, you have been asked to correct flawed arguments or to
complete incomplete arguments. Even if the arguments had failures in
them, your weren’t asked about such failures, but only to correct them.
 Now, weaken the conclusion questions will ask you to directly

concentrate on the flaws of the arguments you will be given and to
expose them.
 This time is not about adding premises (or conclusions) to the
arguments given, but about finding the premise for a counter-argument
that directly contradicts the information given as evidence in the
argument and thus blocks the inference made in it.
 You are not asked to correct the argument, but to find new
information that would show why it doesn’t work as it is.
 The key to finding the correct answer is to identify the evidence
upon which the argument’s conclusion depends, so that you can
then go to the answer choices to find the information that
contradicts it and thus breaks the connection between those
premises and the conclusion.
 The information from the answer choices will have a form that is
dependent on the type of argument you are given. For example, if the
argument is about establishing a causal connection between two
events, the correct answer choice will give an alternative
explanation for the same effect through a different cause. (Much like
Example 11, above).
 Another example: If the argument relies on examples as evidence, the
correct answer choice will give a counterexample: an example that
contradicts the ones given in the argument and thus shows that the
conclusion wasn’t counting every possible case.
 In any case, correct answer choices will present new evidence that
opposes the evidence given in the argument, and thus points to the
weakness of the argument by showing that the information on
which its conclusion relied was either irrelevant or insufficient.
 The correct answer, in some way, is the premise of a new argument
that, by way of only one premise, shows that the opposite conclusion
to the one given in the argument is also plausible.
 Wrong answer choices will either:
 Be irrelevant to the scope of the argument
 Be strengthening instead of weakening the argument
 Need to assume more than one premise to reach the counter-conclusion to the
argument’s conclusion.
 It is important here to remember the three most common flaws in the
arguments that appear in the CR section of GMAT/GRE.
 Shift of scope: the argument will suddenly introduce a new term or idea that wasn’t
mentioned before and isn’t connected to the rest of the argument
 Mistaking correlation for causation: just because two things happen at the same time
doesn’t mean that one caused the other
 Flawed plans and predictions: when facing plans or predictions, we have to look for
unintended consequences of the plans in question, or any important factors that weren’t
accounted for when planning, or maybe a self-defeating feature in the proposed course
of action. The usual stuff that go wrong with plans and predictions about the future.
 For “Weaken the conclusion” questions you are being asked to identify the
flaw in the argument: you know its flawed, but have to know why it is so.
Correct answer choices will either point the gap produced by a shift of
scope; establish a different possible cause for a given effect; or point to
information that wasn’t taken in account and that shows why a plan or
prediction is flawed.
Example
Example 14
Q: The argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds

that it gives reason to believe that it is likely that?
Example 14
At present Satellex Radio provides only music

stations. However, many Satellex subscribers listen
to talk radio stations as well, and they would prefer
that Satellex offered talk radio as well. Moreover,
subscribers to radio services that provide talk radio
usually subscribe for longer periods of time than
those who subscribe to music-only services.
Therefore, if Satellex added talk radio stations, its
profits would increase.
Example 14

Example 14
1. At present Satellex Radio provides only music stations.

2. However, many Satellex subscribers listen to talk radio
stations as well, and they would prefer that Satellex
offered talk radio as well.
3. Moreover, subscribers to radio services that provide
talk radio usually subscribe for longer periods of time
than those who subscribe to music-only services.
4. Therefore, if Satellex added talk radio stations, its
profits would increase.
Example 14
1. At present Satellex Radio provides only music stations.

2. However, many Satellex subscribers listen to talk radio
stations as well, and they would prefer that Satellex offered talk
radio as well.
3. Moreover, subscribers to radio services that provide talk radio
usually subscribe for longer periods of time than those who
subscribe to music-only services.
4. Therefore, if Satellex added talk radio stations, its profits
would increase.
Example 14
1. FACT: At present Satellex Radio provides only music stations.

2. FACT: Many Satellex subscribers listen to talk radio stations as well,
and they would prefer that Satellex offered talk radio as well.
3. FACT: Subscribers to radio services that provide talk radio usually
subscribe for longer periods of time than those who subscribe to
music-only services.
____________________________________________________________
PREDICTION: If Satellex added talk radio stations, its profits would

increase.
Example 14

Example 14
 As we can see, it is important to distinguish the types of premises and

conclusion we are given: fact or claim? Plan or prediction? Cause or
effect? This will be a clue to finding out what could be wrong with the
argument given and thus what flaw the correct answer will be pointing
to.
 In this case, we have facts and a prediction made on their basis: we
could either look for a counter-fact that directly contradicts one of
the facts given, which is not usual for CR answer choices—it would
be too easy—, or for some new fact that, while it doesn’t contradict
any of the ones given, it points to something that was overlooked
while making the plan that depends on the prediction that is given
as conclusion: the correct answer must add new information that
points to a flaw in the prediction.
Example 14
 More specifically, since the prediction is about a rise in profits

that would be caused by an increase in subscriptions due to the
fact that the audience of Satellex radio prefers talks shows, the
correct answer choice should break that connection: it must show
that, even if the Satellex radio were to add Radio stations, no
increase in profits would follow because there wouldn’t be an
increase in subscriptions.
 When we have a prediction that depends on a causal relation, you
need to concentrate on the mediator: the thing that is supposed to
cause the desired effect in the plan’s prediction. Here, that mediator
is the increase in subscriptions that would bring with it an increase in
profits.
Example 14

the argument
Example 14
The argument is vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it gives reason to believe that it is
likely that?
A. Satellex’s large subscriber base would appeal to talk radio hosts, making it easy for
Satellex to hire quality talent for its talk radio stations.
B. Most talk radio hosts broadcast on advertiser-supported radio stations that listeners
can access without paying a subscription fee.
C. Satellex’s costs would rise by adding several talk-radio stations, while many of the
listeners who want talk radio are already Satellex subscribers.
D. Talk radio listeners generally spend more time on a single radio station than do
listeners to music radio.
E. If Satellex added talk radio stations, many of Satellex´s music radio hosts would
switch to talk-radio stations, making the music stations less appealing.
Example 14
Example 14

2. FACT: Many Satellex subscribers listen to talk radio stations as well, and they would prefer
that Satellex offered talk radio as well.
3. FACT: Subscribers to radio services that provide talk radio usually subscribe for longer periods
of time than those who subscribe to music-only services.
____________________________________________________________
PREDICTION: If Satellex added talk radio stations, its profits would increase.
______________________________________________________________________
COUNTER-FACT: Satellex’s costs would rise by adding several talk-radio stations, while many of
the listeners who want talk radio are already Satellex subscribers.
____________________________________________________________
COUNTER-PREDICTION: If Satellex added talk radio stations, its profits would NOT
NECESSARILY INCREASE.
Example 14

2. FACT: Many Satellex subscribers listen to talk radio stations as well, and they
would prefer that Satellex offered talk radio as well.
3. FACT: Subscribers to radio services that provide talk radio usually subscribe for
longer periods of time than those who subscribe to music-only services.
OVERLOOKED INFORMATION: Satellex’s costs would rise by adding several

talk-radio stations, while many of the listeners who want talk radio are already
Satellex subscribers.
____________________________________________________________
COUNTER-PREDICTION: If Satellex added talk radio stations, its profits would

NOT NECESSARILY INCREASE.
Example
Example 15
Q: Which of the following, if true, would most weaken

the argument put forth by the auto industry?
Example 15
The state legislature has proposed a law that requires

all new cars sold in the state to be equipped with
airbags for both front-seat passengers. The auto
industry has lobbied against the proposed law,
pointing out that the airbags would prevent only a
small percentage of serious injuries in most
accidents, serious injuries can be avoided by the use
of seat belts.
Example 15

Example 15
1. The state legislature has proposed a law that requires all

new cars sold in the state to be equipped with airbags for
both front-seat passengers.
2. The auto industry has lobbied against the proposed law,
pointing out that the airbags would prevent only a small
percentage of serious injuries because in most accidents,
serious injuries can be avoided by the use of seat belts.
Example 15
 This passage contains two proposals: the one from the government
and its rejection by the auto industry. This is a common structure for
“Weaken the conclusion” questions: you will be asked to concentrate
on only one of the arguments, so it is crucial to know what are the
claims upon which the argument you are asked to concentrate on
bases its conclusion.
Example 15
STATE’S PROPOSAL: All new cars sold in the state must be equipped
with airbags for both front-seat passengers.
AUTO INDUSTRY’S ARGUMENT:

1. In most accidents, serious injuries can be avoided by the use of seat
belts.
_________________________________________________________
Airbags would prevent only a small percentage of serious injuries.
Example 15

Example 15
 This question is about finding a flaw in the auto industry’s response

to the state’s proposal. This is a very common structure for
“Weaken the conclusion” questions: you are given a plan put forth
by someone that expects to achieve some result thanks to it, and
then you are given someone else’s claim that such plan will not
produce the desired effect because of some reason.
 When we have this, the important thing is to clearly identify what’s in
question:
 The effect desired by the original plan (here, a reduction of serious injuries).
 The means proposed by the original plan to achieve such effect (here, airbags
for both front-seats).
 The claim made by the other part that rejects the original proposal (here, that
airbags would only prevent a small percentage of serious injuries)
 The reason on which the other part founds its claim (here, that serious
injuries can be in most cases avoided by the use of seat-belts).
Example 15
 The key to finding the correct answer is then to find a disconnection:

the reason called for the claim of the opposing part will not
actually be a reason against the means proposed by the original plan
to achieve the desired effect.
 On some level, the claim made by the opposing part will not be
sufficient to show that the original plan will not achieve the desired
effect.
 The correct answer choice will point give some new information that
serves to defend the original plan against the opposing claim by
making it clear that the reason offered against it is irrelevant or easily
circumvented or something of the like.
Example 15
Here, there are two problems with the argument made by the auto
industry.
 The first one lies in percentages: the point is to avoid all serious injuries, but
the auto industry responds by saying that most serious injuries can be avoided
by the sole use of seatbelts. If the auto industry argument where to be heard,
the result would be that the percentage of injuries that cannot be avoided by the
sole use of seatbelts—little as it may be—would remain ignored.
 The second problem is even more concrete: while it may be true that most
serious injuries could be avoided by the use of seatbelts, as the auto industry
says, it could still be the case that not everyone wears a seatbelt when driving.
That’s precisely the case that the State’s proposal is trying to meet: airbags are
there to prevent injuries in the case that one is not wearing a seatbelt or that
seatbelts fail or that they are not enough given the nature of the accident.
 These two types of mistake are the most common ones for “Weaken the
conclusion” questions that face a proposal with a counterclaim made by
another party.
Example 15

the argument
Example 15
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the argument put forth by the auto
industry?
A. The government has a duty to protect the welfare of its citizens.

B. The number of accidents per mile driven in the state is substantially higher
than that for the rest of the nation.
C. The cost of equipping automobiles with airbags will be passed on to the
consumer in the form of higher prices.
D. Most serious injuries occur when front-seat passengers are not wearing their
seat belts.
E. Because the law would apply only to new cars, it would take nearly a
decade for the majority of the state’s cars to become equipped with airbags.
Example 15
Example 15
STATE’S PROPOSAL: All new cars sold in the state must be equipped with airbags for both front-seat
passengers.
AUTO INDUSTRY’S ARGUMENT:

1. In most accidents, serious injuries can be avoided by the use of seat belts.
_________________________________________________________
Airbags would prevent only a small percentage of serious injuries.
COUNTER-ARGUMENT IN DEFENSE OF STATE’S PROPOSAL:

1. Most serious injuries occur when front-seat passengers are not wearing their seat
belts.
_________________________________________________________
Seat belts would not prevent the percentage of serious injuries that is trying to be prevented
Example
Example 16
Q: Which of the following, if true, most threatens the plan’s

likelihood of success?
Example 16
Carnigan International Airport was once the busiest

airport in the region, but two major airlines have
relocated to nearby airports, reducing the number of
flights in and out of Carnigan by more than half. The
gates at Carnigan were built more than thirty years ago
and cannot accommodate the largest modern aircraft. In
an effort to bring in more business, Carnigan officials
plan to build dozens of gates to accommodate modern
aircraft and offer reduced-rate leases to airlines willing to
make long-term commitments.
Example 16

Example 16
1. Carnigan International Airport was once the busiest

airport in the region, but two major airlines have relocated
to nearby airports, reducing the number of flights in and
out of Carnigan by more than half.
2. The gates at Carnigan were built more than thirty years
ago and cannot accommodate the largest modern aircraft.
3. In an effort to bring in more business,
4. Carnigan officials plan to build dozens of gates to
accommodate modern aircraft and offer reduced-rate leases
to airlines willing to make long-term commitments.
Example 16
1. Carnigan International Airport was once the busiest airport in

the region, but two major airlines have relocated to nearby
airports, reducing the number of flights in and out of Carnigan
by more than half.
2. The gates at Carnigan were built more than thirty years ago
and cannot accommodate the largest modern aircraft.
3. In an effort to bring in more business,
4. Carnigan officials plan to build dozens of gates to
accommodate modern aircraft and offer reduced-rate leases to
airlines willing to make long-term commitments.
Example 16
1. FACT: Carnigan International Airport was once the busiest airport in the
region, but two major airlines have relocated to nearby airports, reducing
the number of flights in and out of Carnigan by more than half.
2. FACT: The gates at Carnigan were built more than thirty years ago and
cannot accommodate the largest modern aircraft.
3. PLAN: Carnigan officials plan to build dozens of gates to accommodate
modern aircraft and offer reduced-rate leases to airlines willing to make
long-term commitments.
_________________________________________________________
DESIRED EFFECT: More business will come to Carnigan Airport.
Example 16

Example 16
 Much like in our first example, this argument is about a plan that
pretends to achieve some specific result: bring in more business.
 The correct answer choice will be some information that was
overlooked by the plan which will show that even if were to be
enacted, it would not produce the desired effect.
Example 16

the argument
Example 16
Which of the following, if true, most threatens the plan’s likelihood of success?
A. Most of the airlines operating out of nearby airports have long-term leases on gates
at the other airports.
B. The existing gates at Carnigan rent at rates that are, on average, much lower than the
proposed rates for the new gates to be built there.
C. Because of highway congestion and changing development patterns that make
Carnigan inconvenient to access, airline customers prefer to depart from other
airports.
D. Of the 18 airlines that serve Carnigan or nearby airports, none serve more than one
airport in the area.
E. If the proposed addition is completed, Carnigan will be the largest airport, as
measured both by gates and square footage, in the region.
Example 16
Example 16
1. FACT: Carnigan International Airport was once the busiest airport in the region, but two major
airlines have relocated to nearby airports, reducing the number of flights in and out of Carnigan by
more than half.
2. FACT: The gates at Carnigan were built more than thirty years ago and cannot accommodate the
largest modern aircraft.
3. PLAN: Carnigan officials plan to build dozens of gates to accommodate modern aircraft and offer
reduced-rate leases to airlines willing to make long-term commitments.
_________________________________________________________
DESIRED EFFECT: More business will come to Carnigan Airport.
OVERLOOKED INFORMATION: Because of highway congestion and changing development

patterns that make Carnigan inconvenient to access, airline customers prefer to depart from other
airports.
_________________________________________________________
Even if the plan were put into action, Major Airlines will NOT WANT TO relocate again to Carnigan.
1.6. Boldface questions
 These are the simplest type of questions, since they give you an
already complete argument.
 You are only asked to identify the function that the boldfaced
sentences play in that argument.
 Naturally, to answer these questions correctly you must have a very
clear view of the argument’s structure.
 You have to pay attention to three things:
1. The position of the sentences in the argument: premises, conclusions,

consequences or further considerations that modify the argument.
2. The conjunctions or connectors that introduce the sentences.
3. The main verb of the sentences that signals the main clause and, thus, what
the sentence mainly affirms or does.
Example
Example 16
Q: In the argument above, the two portions in boldface

play which of the following roles?
Example 16
A cancer drug that shows positive results in early laboratory tests

can generate a great deal of interest from cancer patients.
Because of this interest, and the desire to make a profit early
in the development cycle, many pharmaceutical companies
rush the new drug to market as quickly as possible. But
positive early results are often misleading, meaning that the
effort to bring the drug to market was largely wasted.
Consequently, the strategy to maximize long-term profit
from a new cancer drug is to bring the drug to market only
after its positive effects are more thoroughly tested and
established.
Example 16

Example 16
1. A cancer drug that shows positive results in early laboratory

tests can generate a great deal of interest from cancer patients.
2. Because of this interest, and the desire to make a profit
early in the development cycle,
3. many pharmaceutical companies rush the new drug
to market as quickly as possible.
4. But positive early results are often misleading, meaning that

the effort to bring the drug to market was largely wasted.
5. Consequently, the strategy to maximize long-term
profit from a new cancer drug is to bring the drug to
market only after its positive effects are more
thoroughly tested and established.
Example 16
FACT 1: A cancer drug that shows positive results in early laboratory tests can generate
a great deal of interest from cancer patients.
_________________________________________________________
COURSE OF ACTION based on FACT 1: Because of this interest, and the desire to
make a profit early in the development cycle, many pharmaceutical companies
rush the new drug to market as quickly as possible.
FACT 2: But positive early results are often misleading, meaning that the effort to
bring the drug to market was largely wasted.
_________________________________________________________
COURSE OF ACTION based on FACT 2: Consequently, the strategy to maximize
long-term profit from a new cancer drug is to bring the drug to market only after
its positive effects are more thoroughly tested and established.
Example 16

Example 16
 To answer these questions, two things must be done:
1. Know what part are the sentences playing in the argument: premises or
conclusions, basically.
2. See how many arguments are there: sometimes, you will find more than
one argument, one that establishes something and another that tries to
refute the first one.
3. See what each boldfaced sentence is doing in the argument by looking at
pivot words and connectors: here, you have a sentence that introduces a
cause and another that introduces a consequence.
4. See how the sentences are related between them: in this case, the first
sentence is not the reason behind the consequence that is concluded, it in
fact is the reason for the opposing course of action.
5. Try to identify the main thing that the sentence is doing: both sentences are
citing courses of action on the basis of the need to make profit.
Example 16
Step 4. Evaluate each answer choice

Example 16
In the argument above, the two portions in boldface play which of the following roles?
A. The first is a consideration that has been raised to argue that a certain strategy is
counterproductive; the second presents an alternative strategy.
B. The first is a consideration raised to support the strategy that the argument
recommends; the second presents that strategy.
C. The first is a consideration raised to explain the appeal of a certain strategy; the
second presents an alternative strategy.
D. The first is an assumption, rejected by the argument, that has been used to justify a
course of action; the second presents that course of action.
E. The first is a consideration that has been used to justify pursuing a goal that the
argument rejects; the second presents a course of action that has been adopted in
pursuit of that goal.
Example 16
Concluding remarks
Summary of strategy
Step 1. Identify the question type
Step 2. Analyze the argument correspondingly
Step 3. Make a prediction
Step 4. Evaluate all answer choices (and complete the
argument)
Common argument flaws
 Shift of scope: the argument will suddenly introduce a new term or
idea that wasn’t mentioned before and isn’t connected to the rest of the
argument.
 Mistaking correlation for causation: just because two things happen
at the same time doesn’t mean that one caused the other.
 Overlooked information: when facing plans or predictions, we have
to look for unintended consequences of the plans in question, or any
important factors that weren’t accounted for when planning, or maybe a
self-defeating feature in the proposed course of action. The usual stuff
that go wrong with plans and predictions about the future.

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The GMAT® / GRE®

Critical Reasoning Section

Find the argument

Small dogs make better pets than large dogs.

 An argument is about demonstrating the truth of something, so it

Find the argument

An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

 Naturally, it is not a rule for premises to be preceded by pivot words or

1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain variety of trees

Find the argument

The painting Oath of the Horatii shows three brothers

1. The painting Oath of the Horatii shows three brothers

1. The painting Oath of the Horatii shows three brothers

1. The painting Oath of the Horatii shows three brothers

Find the argument

Humans arrived in the Kaliko Islands about 7,000 years ago,

Find the argument

Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in

1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central

1. Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in Central

2. The explanation offered above assumes that…

3. Which of the following is an assumption made in drawing the

4. The argument relies on the assumption that…

5. The conclusión drawn above is based on the assumption that…

An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain

1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain variety of trees

1. An invasive species of beetle that kills a certain variety of trees

ASSUMPTION: the invasive beetle kills the main variety of

Over the past two years, the number of shoppers in

Q: The argument above depends logically upon which of

In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses,

Step 2. Analyze the argument

1. In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses, and

1. In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses, and

Step 3. Predict an answer

Step 4. Evaluate each answer choice to complete

1. In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses, and

Q: Which of the following is an assumption on which the

Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that

Step 2. Analyze the argument

1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy

1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that

1. Most airlines use some form of "tiered pricing," a strategy that

Step 3. Predict an answer

Step 4. Evaluate each answer choice to complete

1. In the next four years, the number of doctors, nurses, and

2. Which of the following, if true, provides additional support

3. Which of the following, if true, most strongly supports the

Q: Which of the following, if true, is further evidence that

When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often

Step 2. Analyze the argument

1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often

1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often shipped

1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often shipped to a

Step 3. Predict an answer

Step 4. Evaluate each answer choice to complete

A. Moving maintenance services away from a centralized location makes it less

1. When a laptop computer needs maintenance, it is often shipped to a central location

Q: Which of the following statements, if true, would most