Lab 1: Form Follows Function

OBJECTIVES
Students completing this module should be able to:
1. Predict the use of an unknown tool based on its structure.
2. Relate the form of an organism to its life functions.
3. Explain the statement, “Form follows function.”

“Whether it be the sweeping eagle in his flight, or the open apple-blossom, the toiling
work-horse, the blithe swan, the branching oak, the winding stream at its base, the
drifting clouds, over all the coursing sun, form ever follows function, and this is the
law. Where function does not change, form does not change. The granite rocks, the
ever-brooding hills, remain for ages; the lightning lives, comes into shape, and dies,
in a twinkling. It is the pervading law of all things organic and inorganic, of all things
physical and metaphysical, of all things human and all things superhuman, of all true
manifestations of the head, of the heart, of the soul, that the life is recognizable in its
expression, that form ever follows function. This is the law.”
Louis Sullivan

INTRODUCTION
Form Follows Function is a principle of 20th century modernist architecture described by the architect
Louis Sullivan (1805-1852). This same concept relates to a defining principle in biology; the shapes of
different parts of organisms are related to their functions. This relationship between form and
function develops and is maintained through the mechanisms of evolution. Variation in the form and
function of individuals within a population arises through random mutation. Individuals that are
better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring (have higher fitness)
than other individuals. The adaptations these individuals have are passed on to larger numbers of
offspring and, therefore, increase in frequency within the population. The result is populations
adapted to survive in their unique environment.

It is important to note that evolution is NOT the design of a structure for a specific purpose (as
Sullivan proposed doing in designing a home). When random mutation produces variation in the form
of some part of an organism, the form that performs the related function best (e.g., most efficiently,
most successfully) will be favored by natural selection and persist in the population.

To fully understand the concept of form follows function, we will need to draw on what we have
learned about the theory of evolution, cell theory, the central dogma, and energy flow. We will have
to look at how organisms function from the level of cells, tissues, organs, systems, and whole
organisms. We will need to look at influences of organisms on each other and their relationship to the
abiotic components of the environment. The study of form and function is the study of organismal
biology. How does an organism’s form allow it to perform all of the functions necessary for life?
ACTIVITY I: FORM AND FUNCTION OF TOOLS

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On your lab table, you will find a common tool. With your team, make some observations of the tool
and answer the questions below.

1. Draw the tool.

2. What material/s is your tool made of?

3. Is your tool organized into different sections?

4. What is the function of this tool? Are there different functions for different parts?

5. How does the form of your tool facilitate the function of your tool?

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Each person on your team will now be assigned a “mystery” tool. Look at your tool and try to identify
its purpose, using the form of the tool (shape, material, segments, etc.) as clues to the function.

1. Draw the tool.

2. What material/s is your tool made of?

3. Is your tool organized into different sections? If so, describe them.

4. What do you think the function of this tool is? Are there different functions for different
parts?

5. How does the form of your tool facilitate the function of your tool?

Once each member of your team has completed their observations, take turns presenting your tool
to the rest of the team. Share your prediction about the function of your tool and the evidence that
led you to this conclusion. See if any of your teammates have different ideas about your tool.

After completing the lab, answer the question related to this activity as part of the Lab Assessment.

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ACTIVITY II: ADAPTATION OF FORM AND FUNCTION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Fiddler crabs are crustaceans that inhabit intertidal marshes and mudflats. Male fiddler crabs dig
cylindrical burrows in the substrate where they take shelter from predators, hot sun, winter cold, and
high tides and where females will lay their clutch of eggs. Fiddler crabs are sexually dimorphic. Male
fiddler crabs (Uca pugilator) have one large claw that is sometimes just as big as the rest of their
body, while females have two claws the same size.

On some intertidal beaches, you may see thousands of fiddler crabs on a beach. Some males will
stand by a burrow, ready to dart for cover if a predator gets to close. Other males wander around,
occasionally approaching and challenging the “residents” of the burrow. These residents will wave
their big claws up and down again and again.

Scientists have wondered what the evolutionary benefits of this large claw and the waving behavior
might be and have performed research studies to investigate this question.

1. What are some potential benefits of

having a big claw? List at least three.

Image Source: Wikimedia commons

2. What might be some costs to the animal of having a big claw? List at least three.

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Hypothesis 1:

Hyatt and Salmon (1978) observed interspecific battles of the Atlantic Sand Fiddler Crab (Uca
pugilator). They identified each individual as either a “Resident” (one who currently has a burrow) or
a “Wanderer” (one who is looking for a burrow). The researchers measured the size of the claw to
identify large or small crabs. The observations are reported in Table 1 below. Calculate the percent of
fights won by the resident for each case.

Table 1. Outcomes of fights between fiddler crab male residents and wanderers of different relative
sizes.

Size of # of Fights # Fights won by % Fights won by

Resident’s Claw Resident Resident
Larger than wanderer 151 150
Equal to wanderer 44 41
Smaller than wanderer 208 158

3. What hypothesis related to the costs or benefits of the large claw were the researchers testing
with this experiment? Compose a null and alternative hypothesis/hypotheses.

4. What do the data in Table 1 tell us about the costs and/or benefits of the big claw?

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Hypothesis 2:

Oliveira and Costodio (1998) observed the behavior of female fiddler crabs towards males with
different size claws and with waving vs resting claw behavior.

Figure 1. Number of females that moved in Figure 2. Number of females that moved in
the direction of each male type. the direction of each behavior.

5. What hypothesis related to the costs or benefits of the large claw were the researchers testing
with these experiments? Compose a null and alternative hypothesis/hypotheses.

6. What do these data tell us about the costs and/or benefits of the big claw?

A third hypothesis will be tested as part of the Lab Assessment.

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ACTIVITY III: MEET YOUR SPECIES

Each person on your team will now be assigned a species that you will research throughout the
semester. Within each team you should have one of each of the following categories of organisms:
(1) vertebrate animal, (2) invertebrate animal, (3) plant, (4) microbe (bacterium or protist).

Go ahead and open your box. The box contains your mystery species and a card with the scientific
name. Over the course of the semester, you will be asked to answer questions about your species
that relate to the content we are covering in class and lab. After researching and answering the
questions, you will make a PowerPoint slide for each topic. At the end of the semester you will be
asked to present a recorded video that discusses the functions of living organisms and how your
species’ form relates to those functions. You can use any medium you want for the presentation but
it must be recorded and less than 5 minutes. The final recorded Species Form and Function Project is
worth 50 points.

Answer the questions below and complete the table on the Lab Assessment before leaving lab.

1. What is the common name for your species?

2. What is the Latin name of your species?

(Don't forget to underline the whole name and capitalize the Genus)

3. In addition to the phylogenetic information that Latin names confer, they might also be
descriptive. Species are sometimes named after a place or scientist (or other person). The
name might also confer something about the morphology or behavior. What information can
you find about the Latin name of your species? (Hint: try using Google to translate each part
of the scientific name from Latin to English)

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 4. Look at your organism and describe all you can about the morphology. Does the morphology
tell you anything about the life functions? Fill in the table in the Lab Assessment with a list of
morphological features followed by a potential function (e.g., wings – flight, thorns – defense
against herbivory).

Photo Credit: https://www.pexels.com/photo/white-and-brown-bird-flying-under-blue-sky-during-daytime-56018/

Photo Credit: https://www.flickr.com/photos/frted/5510369808

References
Allen BJ, Levinton JS. 2007. Costs of bearing a sexually selected ornamental weapon in a Fiddler crab.
Functional Ecology 21(1): 154–161.
Collins DP. 2016. En Garde! Animal Structures and What They Mean. National Center for Case Study Teaching
in Science. University at Buffalo, State University of New York.

Hyatt GW, Salmon M. "Combat in the fiddler crabs Uca pugilator and Uca pugnax: a quantitative
analysis." Behaviour 65.1 (1978): 182-211

Oliveira RF, Costódio MR. 1998. Claw size, waving display, and female choice in the European fiddler crab, Uca
tangeri. Ethology, Ecology & Evolution 10(3): 241-251.

Sullivan, Louis H. (1896). "The Tall Office Building Artistically Considered". Lippincott's Magazine (March 1896):
403–409.

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 Lab 1: Form Follows Function
Assessment
LAB PARTICIPATION [3 PTS]

1 point 0.5 point 0 points Points

Engaged and Minimum Disrespectful or
Attitude
hard-working required effort does not contribute
2 point 1 point 0 points Points
All parts of lab 1 part of lab > 1 part of lab not
Completion
completed not completed completed
Participation /3

Questions /12

Total /15

ACTIVITY I: MYSTERY TOOLS (AND ORGANISMS)

1. Based on your observations of both tools and organisms, explain what is meant by the phrase
“Form Follows Function”. [2 pts] Use complete sentences.

2. What is the key difference in how the relationship between form and function comes to exist
in tools vs. living organisms? [1 pt]

ACTIVITY II: ADAPTATION OF FORM AND FUNCTION

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Hypothesis 3:

Allen and Levinton (2007) tested the endurance capacity of crabs by running them on treadmills at a
certain velocity until fatigued. Fatigue was defined as the time when a crab was no longer able to
maintain the pace of the treadmill.

In the first experiment, all crabs that were used were similarly sized males. Treatment groups were:
(1) crabs with their major claw intact; (2) crabs with no major claw and no added weight; and (3)
crabs with no major claw but equivalent mass added to the carapace.

3. What hypothesis related to the costs and/or benefits of the large claw were the researchers
testing with this experiment? [1 pt]

4. The results of the experiment are shown in Figure 1, below. What do these data tell us about
the costs or benefits of the big claw? [1 pt]

Fig. 1. Proportion (± SE) of male fiddler crabs

continuing to run at 4 m min-1. Intact major claw
(filled circle); no major claw (open triangle down);
and no major claw, weight added to carapace
(open circle)]. In the first experiment, n = 20
(intact) and 15 (no claw and no claw, weight
added).
5. Based on the evidence you reviewed for all three hypotheses, how does the male fiddler
crab’s big claw influence the male’s evolutionary fitness? Summarize the trade-offs involved.
[2 pts] Use complete sentences.
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SPECIES FORM AND FUNCTION PROJECT: MEET YOUR SPECIES

6. Enter observations about the morphology of your species and predicted functions for each
observation. [2 pts]

Name of Species:
Form Function

7. Find a phylogenetic tree that hypothesizes evolutionary relationships between your species
and others. Print the phylogeny and turn it in with your lab assessment. [1 pt]

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8. List the full classification for your species. Some species may have some “unranked”
categories or missing information. Fill in as much information as you can find. [1 pt]

Kingdom:

Phylum/Division:

Class:

Order:

Family:

Genus:

Species:

9. Create your first PowerPoint slide. Print out your slide and turn it in with your Lab
Assessment. [1 pt]

Slide 1 should include:

a. Common name
b. Scientific name
c. Classification (Kingdom, Phylum, etc...)
d. Picture of your species

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